Elsevier

Developmental Biology

Volume 238, Issue 1, 1 October 2001, Pages 1-12
Developmental Biology

Review
Activins as Regulators of Branching Morphogenesis

https://doi.org/10.1006/dbio.2001.0399Get rights and content
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Abstract

Development of glandular organs such as the kidney, lung, and prostate involves the process of branching morphogenesis. The developing organ begins as an epithelial bud that invades the surrounding mesenchyme, projecting dividing epithelial cords or tubes away from the site of initiation. This is a tightly regulated process that requires complex epithelial–mesenchymal interactions, resulting in a three-dimensional treelike structure. We propose that activins are key growth and differentiation factors during this process. The purpose of this review is to examine the direct, indirect, and correlative lines of evidence to support this hypothesis. The expression of activins is reviewed together with the effect of activins and follistatins in the development of branched organs. We demonstrate that activin has both negative and positive effects on cell growth during branching morphogenesis, highlighting the complex nature of activin in the regulation of proliferation and differentiation. We propose potential mechanisms for the way in which activins modify branching and address the issue of whether activin is a regulator of branching morphogenesis.

Keywords

branching morphogenesis
organogenesis
embryogenesis
activin
inhibin
follistatin
TGFβ
epithelium
mesenchyme
stroma

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1

To whom correspondence should be addressed at Monash Medical Centre, Monash Institute of Reproduction and Development, 246 Clayton Road, Clayton, Vic 3168, Australia. Fax: +61 (3) 9594 7115. E-mail: [email protected].