Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Cancer Epidemiology pp 439–453Cite as

Epidemiology, Pathology, and Genetics of Prostate Cancer Among African Americans Compared with Other Ethnicities

  • Protocol

Part of the book series: Methods in Molecular Biology ((MIMB,volume 472))

Abstract

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer affecting men in the Western world. In the United States, it is the second leading cause of cancer related deaths after lung and bronchus carcinoma. No definitive causes of prostate cancer (PCa) have been identified to date but, increasing age, a positive family history, and sub-Saharan African ancestry are strongly linked to its development. African American men (AAM) have the highest reported incidence rates in the United States and their mortality from the disease is markedly higher than that of European American men (EAM). Conversely, Asian American men and Pacific Islanders (API), American Indian and Alaskan Native (AI/AN) men, and Hispanic men all have lower incidence and mortality rates as compared with EAM. The reasons for these differences are unclear. However, it is clear that AAM have more advanced PCa when diagnosed. Several other reasons have been suggested and these include differences in treatments and health seeking behavior among the ethnic groups, cultural beliefs, environmental/lifestyle factors, dietary and genetic factors. In conclusion, there are multiple factors that impact prostate cancer outcome and that may be responsible for ethnic disparity. These factors are discussed in this chapter.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Protocol
USD   49.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   179.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Springer Nature is developing a new tool to find and evaluate Protocols. Learn more

References

  1. American Cancer Society (2007) Cancer facts and figures 2007 . Available at http://www.cancer.org/docroot/STT/stt_0.asp.

  2. American Cancer Society (2003) Cancer facts and figures 2003. Available at http://www.cancer.org/docroot/STT/stt_0.asp.

  3. Grönberg, H. (2003) Prostate cancer epidemiology. Lancet 361, 859–864.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Crawford, E. D. (2003) Epidemiology of prostate cancer. Urology 62 (6) (suppl 1), 3–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Schaid, D. J. (2004) The complex genetic epidemiology of prostate cancer. Hum Mol Genet, suppl. 13, R103–121.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Brawley, O. W. (1998) Prostate cancer and black men. Semin Urol Oncol 16 ,184–186.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. American Cancer Society (2007) Cancer facts and figures for AAMs 2007–2008. Available at http://www.cancer.org/docroot/STT/ stt_0.asp.

  8. Liu, L., Cozen, W., Bernstein, L., Ross, R. K., Deapen, D. (2001) Changing relationship between socioeconomic status and prostate cancer incidence. J Natl Cancer Inst 93, 705–709.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Powell, I. J., Gelfand, D. E., Parzuchowski, J, Heilbrun, L., Franklin, A. (1995) A successful recruitment process of African American men for early detection of prostate cancer. Cancer 75, 1880–1884.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Robbins, A. S., Whittemore, A.S., Thom, D. H. (2000) Differences in socioeconomic status and survival among white and black men with prostate cancer. Am J Epidemiol 151, 409–416.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Powell, I. J., Zhou, J., Sun, Y., Sakr, W. A, Patel, N. P., Heilbrun, L. K., et al. (2004) CYP3A4 genetic variant and disease-free survival among white and black men after radical prostatectomy. J Urol 172, 1848–1852.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Gaston, K. E., Kim, D., Singh, S., Ford 3rd, O. H., Mohler, J.L. (2003) Racial differences in androgen receptor protein expression in men with clinically localized prostate cancer. J Urol 170, 990–993.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Mettlin, C. (1997) Recent developments in the epidemiology of prostate cancer. Eur J Cancer 33, 340–347.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Jani, A. B., Vaida, F., Hanks, G., Asbell, S., Sartor O., Moul, J.W. et al. (2001) Changing face and different countenances of prostate cancer: racial and geographic differences in prostate-specific antigen (PSA), stage, and grade trends in the PSA era. Int J Cancer 96, 363–371.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Glover Jr, F. E., Coffey, D. S., Douglas, L. L., Cadogan, M., Russell, H., Tulloch, T., et al. (1998) The epidemiology of prostate cancer in Jamaica. J Urol 159, 1984–1986.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Delongschamp, N. B., Singh A., Haas, G. P. (2007) Epidemiology of prostate cancer in Africa: Another step in the understanding of the disease? Curr Prob Cancer 31, 226–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Ahluwalia, B., Jackson, M. A., Jones G. W., Williams, A. O., Rao, M. S., Rajguru S. (1981) Blood hormone profiles in prostate cancer patients in high-risk and low-risk populations. Cancer 48, 2267–2273.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Haenszel, W., Kurihara M. 1968 Study of Japanese migrants. I. Mortality form cancer and other diseases among Japanese in the United States. J. Natl Cancer Inst 40, 43–68.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Ries, L. A. G., Eisner M.P., Kosary C.L., Hankey B.F., Miller B.A., Clegg L., et al. (2002) SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975–2002, National Cancer Institute. Bethesda, MD. Available at http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2002/.

  20. Chu, K. C., Tarone, R .E., Freeman, H. P. (2003) Trends in prostate cancer mortality among black men and white men in the United States. Cancer 97, 1507–1516.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Lu-Yao, G., Albertsen P. C., Stanford J.L., Stukel T.A., Walker-Corkery, E. S., Barry M. J. (2002) Natural experiment examining impact of aggressive screening and treatment on prostate cancer mortality in two fixed cohorts from Seattle area and Connecticut. BMJ 325, 740.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Wild, S.H., Fischbacher, C. M., Brock, A., Griffiths, C., Bhopal, R. (2006) Mortality from all cancers and lung, colorectal, breast and prostate cancer by country of birth in England and Wales, 2001–2003. Br J Cancer 94, 1079–1085.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Yu, H., Jarris, R. E., Gao, Y. T., Gao, R., Wynder, E. L. (1991) Comparative epidemiology of cancer of colon, rectum, prostate and breast in Shanghai, China versus the United States. Int J Epidemiol 20, 76–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Steinberg, G. D., Carter, B. S., Beaty, T. H., Childs, B., Walsh, P. C. (1990) Family history and the risk of prostate cancer. Prostate 17, 337–347.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Johns, L. E., Houlston, R. S. (2003) A systematic review and meta-analysis of familial prostate cancer. BJU Intl 91, 789–794.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Freedman, M. L., Haiman, C. A., Patterson, N., McDonald, G. J., et al. (2006) Admixture mapping identifies 8q24 as a prostate cancer risk locus in African-American men. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103, 14068–14073.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Suuriniemi, M., Agalliu, I., Schaid, D. J., Johanneson, B., McDonnell, S. K., et al. (2007) Conformation of a positive association between prostate cancer risk and a locus at chromosome 8q24. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16, 809–814.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Kittles, R. A., Baffoe-Bonnie, A. B., Moses, T. Y., Robbins, C. M., Ahaghotu, C., et al. (2006) A common nonsense mutation in EphB2 is associated with prostate cancer risk in African American men with a positive family history. J Med Genet 43, 507–511.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. DeVere White, R. W., Deitch, A. D., Jackson, A. G., Gandour-Edwards, R., Marshal-leck, J., Soares, S.E., et al. (1998) Racial differences in clinically localized prostate cancers of black and white men. J Urol 159, 1979–1982.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Richie, J. P. (1999) Anti-androgens and other hormonal therapies for prostate cancer. Urology 54, 15–18.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Kokontis, J. M., Liao, S. (1999) Molecular action of androgen in the normal and neoplastic prostate Vitam Horm 55, 219–307.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Culig, Z., Hobisch, A., Bartsch, G., Klocker, H. (2000) Regulation of prostatic growth by peptide growth factors. Prostate 28, 392–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Parsons, J. K., Carter, H. B., Platz, E. A., Wright, E. J., Landis, P., Metter, E. J. (2005) Serum testosterone and the risk of prostate cancer: potential implications for testosterone therapy. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 14, 2257–2260.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Hsing, A. W., Comstock, G. W. (1993) Serological precursors of cancer: serum hormone and risk of subsequent prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev, 2, 27–32.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Platz, E. A., Leitzmann, M. F., Rifai, N., Kantoff, P. W., Chen, Y. C., Stampfer, M. J., Willet. W. C., Giovannucci, E. (2005) Sex steroid hormones and the androgen receptor gene CAG repeat and subsequent risk of prostate cancer in the prostate-specific antigen era. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 14, 1262–1269.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Ellis, L., Nyborg, H. (1992) Racial/ethnic variations in male testosterone levels: a probable contributor to group differences in health. Steroids 57, 72–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Zeegers, M. P., Kiemeney, L. A., Nieder, A. M., Ostrer, H. (2004) How strong is the association between CAG and GGN repeat length polymorphisms in the androgen receptor gene and prostate cancer risk? Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 13, 1765–1771.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Soronen, P., Laiti, M., Torn, S., Harkonen, P., Patrikainen, L., Li, Y., et al. (2004) Sex steroid hormone metabolism and prostate cancer. Ster Biochem Mol Biol 92, 281–286.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Giovannucci E., Stampfer M. J., Krithivas K., Brown, M., Dahl, D., et al. (1997) The CAG repeat within the androgen receptor gene and its relationship to prostate cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94, 3320–3323.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Bratt O., Borg A., Kristoffersson U., Lundgren, R., Zhang, Q. X., Olsson, H. (1999) CAG repeat length in the androgen receptor gene is related to age at diagnosis of prostate cancer and response to endocrine therapy, but not to prostate cancer risk. Br J Cancer 81, 672–676.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Nam R. K., Elhaji, Y., Krahn, M. D., Lee, S. H., Kim, C. C., Hahn, S. H., et al. (2000) Significance of the CAG repeat polymorphism of the androgen receptor gene in prostate cancer progression. J Urol 164, 567–572.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Gilligan, T., Manola, J., Sartor, O., Weinrich, S. P., Moul, J. W., Kantoff, P. W. (2004) Absence of a correlation of androgen receptor gene CAG repeat length and prostate cancer risk in an African-American population. Clin Prostate Cancer 3, 98–103.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Powell, I. J., Land, S. J., Dey, J., Heilbrun, L.K., Hughes, M.R., Sakr, W., et al. (2005) Impact of CAG repeats in exon 1 of the androgen receptor on disease progression after prostatectomy. Cancer 103, 528–537.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Balic, I., Graham, S. T., Troyer, D. A., Higgins, B. A., Pollock, B. H., Johnson-Pais, T. L., Thompson, I. M., Leach, R. J. (2002) Androgen receptor length polymorphism associated with prostate cancer risk in Hispanic men. J Urol 168, 2245–2248.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Hsing A. W., Gao Y. T., Wu, G., Wang, X., Deng, J., Chen, Y. L., et al. (2000) Polymorphic CAG and GGN repeat lengths in the androgen receptor gene and prostate cancer risk: A population-based case-control study in China. Cancer Res 60, 5111–5116.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Correa-Cerro L., Wohr G., Haussler J., Berthon, P., Drelon, E., Mangin, P. , et al. (1999) (CAG)nCAA and GGN repeats in the human androgen receptor gene are not associated with prostate cancer in a French-German population. Eur J Hum Genet 7, 357–362.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Ntais, C., Polycarpou, A., Ioannidis, J.P. (2003) Association of the CYP17 gene polymorphism with the risk of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 12, 120–126.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Rebbeck, T.R., Jaffe, J.M., Walker, A.H., Wein, A.J., Malkowicz, S.B. (1998) Modification of clinical presentation of prostate tumors by a novel genetic variant in CYP3A4. J Natl Cancer Inst 90, 1225–1229.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Bangsi, D., Zhou, J.Y., Sun, Y., Patel, N. P., Darga, L. L., Heilbrun, L. K., et al. (2006) Impact of a genetic variant in CYP3A4 on risk and clinical presentation of prostate cancer among white and African-American men, Urol Oncol 24, 21–27.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Makridakis, N, M., di Salle, E., Reichardt, J. K. (2000) Biochemical and pharmacogenetic dissection of human steroid 5 alpha-reductase type II. Pharmacogenetics 10, 407–413.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Winters, D. L., Hanlon, A.L., Raysor, S. L., Watkins-Bruner, D., Pinover, W. H., et al. (2001) Plasma levels of IGF-1, IGF-2, and IGFBP-3 in white and African-American men at increased risk of prostate cancer. Urology 58, 614–618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Wang, C., Catlin, D. H., Starcevic, B., Heber, D., Ambler, C., Berman, N., et al. (2005) Low-fat high-fiber diet decreased serum and urine androgens in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90, 3550–3559.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Griffiths, K., Morton, M. S., Denis, L. (1999) Certain aspects of molecular endocrinology that relate to the influence of dietary factors on the pathogenesis of prostate cancer. Eur Urol 35, 443–455.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Buschemeyer, W. C., Freedland, S. J. (2007) Obesity and prostate cancer, epidemiology and clinical implications. Eur Urol 52, 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Amling, C. L., Riffenburgh, R.H., Sun, L., Moul, J.W., Lance, R.S., Kusuda, L., et al. (2004) Pathologic variables and recurrence rates as related to obesity and race in men with prostate cancer undergoing radical prostatectomy. J Clin Oncol 22, 439–445.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Clinton, S. K., Emenhiser, C., Schwartz, S. J., et al. (1996) Cis-trans lycopene isomers, carotenoids, and retinol in human prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 5, 823–833.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Giovannucci, E., Rimm, E. B., Liu Y., Stampfer, M. J., Willett, W. C. (2002) A prospective study of tomato products, lycopene, and prostate cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 94, 391–398.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Kirsh V. A., Mayne, S. T., Peters, U., Chatterjee, N., Leitzmann, M. F., Dixon, L. B., Urban, D. A., Crawford, E. D., Hayes, R. B. (2006) A prospective study of lycopene and tomato product intake and risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 15, 92–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Thorpe, J. F., Jain S., Marczylo, T. H., Gescher, A. J., Steward, W. P. , Mellon, J. K. (2007) A review of phase III clinical trials of prostate cancer chemoprevention. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 89, 207–211.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Moul, J. W., Sesterhenn, I. A., Connelly, R. R., Douglas, T., Srivastava, S., Mostofi, F. K., et al. (1995) Prostate-specific antigen values at the time of prostate cancer diagnosis in African-American men. JAMA 274, 1277–1281.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Sakr, W. A., Grignon, D. J., Hass, G., Heilbrun, L. K., Pontes, J. E., Crissman, J. D. (1996) Age and racial distribution of prostate intraepithelial neoplasia. Eur Urol 30, 138–144.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Hoffman, R. M., Gilliland, F. D., Eley, J. W., Harlan, L. C., Stephenson, R.A., Stanford, J. L., et al. (2001) Racial and ethnic differences in advanced-stage prostate cancer: the Prostate Cancer Outcomes Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 93, 388–395.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Moul, J. W., Connelly, R. R., Mooneyhan, R. M., Zhang,W., Sesterhenn, I. A., Mostofi, F. K., et al. (1999) Racial differences in tumor volume and prostate specific antigen among radical prostatectomy patients. J Urol 162, 394–397.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Ndubuisi, S.C., Kofie, V. Y., Andoh, J. Y., Schwartz, E. M. (1995) Black-white differences in the stage at presentation of prostate cancer in the District of Columbia. Urology 46, 71–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Shavers, V. L., Brown, M. L. (2002) Racial and ethnic disparities in the receipt of cancer treatment. J Natl Cancer Inst 94, 334–357.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Harlan, L. C., Potosky, A., Gilliland, F. D., Hoffman, R., Albertsen, P. C., Hamilton, A. S., et al. (2001) Factors associated with initial therapy for clinically localized prostate cancer: prostate cancer outcomes study. J Natl Cancer Inst 93, 1864–1871.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Morris, C. R., Snipes, K. P., Schlag, R., Wright, W. E. (1999) Sociodemographic factors associated with prostatectomy utilization and concordance with the physician data query for prostate cancer (United States). Cancer Causes Control 10, 503–511.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Klabunde, C. N., Potosky, A. L., Harlan, L. C., Kramer, B. S. (1998) Trends and black/white differences in treatment for nonmetastatic prostate cancer. Med Care 36, 1337–1348.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Underwood, W., De Monner, S., Ubel, P., Fagerlin, A., Sanda, M. G., Wei, J. T. (2004) Racial/ethnic disparities in the treatment of localized/regional prostate cancer. J Urol 171, 1504–1507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Shavers, V. L., Brown, M. L., Potosky, A. L., Klabunde, C. N., Davis, W.W., Moul, J.W., et al. (2004) Race/ethnicity and the receipt of watchful waiting for the initial management of prostate cancer. Gen Intern Med 19, 146–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Optenberg, S. A., Thompson, I. M., Friedrichs, P., Wojcik, B., Stein, C. R., Kramer, B. (1995) Race, treatment, and long-term survival from prostate cancer in an equal-access medical care delivery system. JAMA 274, 1599–1605.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Moul, J. W., Wu, H., Sun, L., McLeod, D. G., Amling, C., Lance, R., et al. (2002) Epidemiology of radical prostatectomy for localized prostate cancer in the era of prostate-specific antigen: an overview of the Department of Defense Center for Prostate Disease Research national database. Surgery 132, 213–219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Powell, I.J., Schwartz, K., Hussain, M. (1995) Removal of the financial barrier to health care: does it impact on prostate cancer at presentation and survival? A comparative study between black and white men in a Veterans Affairs system. Urology 46, 825–830.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Moul, J. W., Douglas, T. H., McCarthy, W. F., McLeod, D. G. (1996) Black race is an adverse prognostic factor for prostate cancer recurrence following radical prostatectomy in an equal access health care setting. J Urol 155, 1667–1673.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Iselin, C. E., Box, J. W., Vollmer, R. T., Layfield, L. J., Robertson, J.E., Paulson, D.F. (1998) Surgical control of clinically localized prostate carcinoma is equivalent in African-American and white males. Cancer 83, 2353–2360.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Powell, I.J., Dey, J., Dudley, A., Pontes, J.E., Cher, M.L., Sakr, W., et al., (2002) Disease-free survival difference between African-Americans and whites after radical prostatectomy for local prostate cancer: a multivariable analysis. Urology 59, 907–912.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Grossfeld, G.D., Latini, D.M., Downs, T., Lubeck, D.P., Mehta, S.S., Carroll, P.R. (2002) Is ethnicity an independent predictor of prostate cancer recurrence after radical prostatectomy? J Urol 168, 2510–2515.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Powell, I.J., Banerjee, M., Bianco, F.J., Wood Jr, D.P., Dey, J., Lai, Z., et al. The effect of race/ethnicity on prostate cancer treatment outcome is conditional: a review of Wayne State University data. J Urol 171 (2004), 1508–1512.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Urology, Wayne State University Detroit, MI, USA

    Heinric Williams & Isaac J. Powell

Authors
  1. Heinric Williams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Isaac J. Powell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA

    Mukesh Verma PhD

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this protocol

Cite this protocol

Williams, H., Powell, I.J. (2009). Epidemiology, Pathology, and Genetics of Prostate Cancer Among African Americans Compared with Other Ethnicities. In: Verma, M. (eds) Cancer Epidemiology. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 472. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-492-0_21

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60327-492-0_21

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-60327-491-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-60327-492-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Protocols

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation