Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The hypothalamus in Parkinson Disease

  • Editorial
  • Published:
The Italian Journal of Neurological Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

It is currently believed that Parkinson disease (PD) is due to a degenerative process that independently damages multiple areas of the central and peripheral nervous system. Loss of nigrostriatal dopamine is now widely recognized as being directly related to the motor symptoms in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonian patients also exhibit symptoms and signs suggestive of hypothalamic dysfunction (e.g. dysautonomia, impaired heat tolerance). The latter clinical features are supported by pathological, biochemical and endocrinological findings. Lewy body formation has been demonstrated in every nucleus of the hypothalamus, specifically the tuberomamillary and posterior hypothalamic. Preferential involvement of the hypothalamus was also noted in patients after post-encephalitic parkinsonism. Loss of dopamine (30–40%) in the hypothalamus of affected patients has been shown in recent studies, and is compatible with the reported abnormalities of growth hormone release in response to L-dopa administration, elevated plasma levels of MSH, and reduced CSF levels of somatostatin and beta-endorphins in these patients. Deranged immunological mechanisms have been found in PD patients including the presence of autoantibodies against sympathetic ganglia neurons, adrenal medulla and caudate nucleus. On the evidence of on pathological studies demonstrating the early vulnerability of the hypothalamus in aging and PD, and the known role of the hypoth lamus in immune modulation, we expect that it will be shown that primary damage ot the hypothalamus leads to subsequent secondary degeneration of structures receiving direct projections from the hypothalamus. Within this framework, the dopaminergic systems may be damaged, since striatal dopamine synthesis and receptor sensitivity have been shown to be regulated by ACTH and alpha-MSH through direct arcuate nucleus-striatal projections. We also demonstrate that virtually all other areas well known to be impacted upon in Parkinson disease receive significant hypothalamic peptidergic projections.

Sommario

Si ritiene correntemente che la malattia di Parkinson (P.D.) sia dovuta ad un processo degenerativo che danneggia numerose zone del sistema nervoso centrale e di quello periferico. Si sa che la carenza di dopomine nigrostriale è certamente correlata ai disturbi motori in questa malattia. Ma i parkinsoniani hanno anche sintomi e segni suggestivi per un interessamento ipotalamico (disautonomia e ridotta tolleranza al calore). Questi aspetti clinici sono dovuti a fattori patologici sia biochimici che endocrinologici. È stata dimostrata la formazione di corpi Lewy in ogni nucleo dell'ipotolamo specialmente in quelli tubero mamillare e posteriori e un interessamento preferenziale, dell'ipotolamo è stato segnalato in pazienti affetti da parkinsonismo postencefalitico. Una perdita di dopamina del 30/40% nell'ipotalamo è stata vista in recenti ricerche ed è compatibile con la anormalità di formazione dell'ormone della crescita in risposta all'L-dopa e livelli ridotti di somatostatina e di beta-endorfina nel liquor. Meccanismi di sregolazione immunologica sono stati trovati in pazienti parkinsoniani quale la presenza di autoanticorpi contro neuroni dei gangli simpatici e del nucleo candato. Poiché sappiamo che vi è una precoce vulnerabilità dell'ipotalamo nella vecchiaia e nel morbo di Parkinson e conosciamo il ruolo delliipotalamo nell'immunamodulazione ci attendiamo che un danno primitivo dell'ipotalamo posti a una secondaria degenerazione delle strutture che ricevono una diretta proiezione dell'ipotalamo. All'interno di questa struttura i sistemi dopasinergici possono essere danneggiati del momento che la sintesi di dopamina e la sensibilità dei recettori sono regolata dall'ACTH e dell'ormone stimolante le alpha-melanoiti attraverso la proiezione arcate nucleostristriatali. Noi dimostriamo inoltre che virtualmente tutte le altre aree interessate nel morbo di Parkinson ricevono importanti proiezioni ipotalamiche peptidergiche.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Agid Y., Javoy-Agid F.:Peptides and Parkinson's disease. Trends in Neurosci. 8:30–35, 1985.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Hassler R.:Zur pathologie ober paralysis agitans und des postencephalitischen Parkinsonismus. J. Psychol. Neurol. 48:387–476, 1938.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Jager den Hartog W.A.:Springomyelin in Lewy inclusion bodies in Parkinson's disease. Arch. Neurol. 21:615–619, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Scatton B., Javoy-Agid F., Rouguier L., Agid Y.:Reduction of cortical dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin and their metabolites in Parkinson's disease. Brain, Res. 275:321–328, 1983.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Reisine J.D., Fields J.Z., Yamamura H.I.:Neurotransmitter receptor alterations on Parkinson's disease. Life Sci 21:335–339, 1977.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Lloyd K.G., Shemen L., Hornykiewicz O.:Distribution of high affinity sodium-independent [3 H] gamma-aminobutyric acid ([ 3 H]-GABA) binding in the human brain: Alterations in Parkinson's disease. Brain Res. 278:269–275, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Taquet H., Javoy-Agid F., Haman J.C., Legrand J.C., Agid Y., Cesselin F.:Parkinson's disease affects differently Met5 and Leu5-enkephalin in the human brain. Brain Res. 280:379–382, 1983.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Epelbaum J., Ruberg M., Moyse E.:Somatostatin and dementia in Parkinson's disease. Brain Res. 278:376-P382, 1983.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Barbeau A.:Parkinson's disease as a systemic disorder. In: Third Symposium on Parkinson's Disease, Gilhingham F.J. and Donaldson I.M.L. (eds.), Edinburgh: Livingstone, pp. 66–73, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Parkinson J.:An Essay on the Shaking Palsy. London: Sherwood, Neely and Jones, 1817.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Burton J.L., Shuster S.:Effect of L-dopa on seborrhoea of Parkinsonism. Lancet 2:19–22, 1970.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Rajput A.H., Rozdilsky B.:Dysautonomia in Parkinsonim: A clinicopathological study. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 39:1092–1100, 1976.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Selby G.:Parkinson's disease. In: Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Amsterdam: North Holland, pp. 173–211, Vol. 6, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Forno L.S., Norville R.L.:Ultrastructure of Lewy bodies in the stellate ganglion. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl). 34:183–197, 1976.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Perkin G.D.:Autonomic Function, In: Research Progress in Parkinson's Disease, Pitman Medical: Kent, pp. 111–125, 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Vanderhaeghen J.J., Perrier O., Sternon J.E.:Pathological findings in idiopathic orthostatic hypotension. Arch. Neurol. 22:207–214, 1970.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Bannister R., Oppenheimer D.R.:Degenerative disease of the nervous system associated with autonomic failure. Brain 95:457–474, 1972.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Gross M., Bannister R., Godwin-Austen R.:Orthostatic hypotension in Parkinson's disease. Lancet, 1:174–176, 1972.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Barbeau A., Gillo-Joffroy L., Boucher R., Nowaczynski W., Genest J.:Renin-aldosterone system in Parkinson's disease. Science 165:291–294, 1969.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. McDowell F.H., Lee J.E.:Levodopa Parkinson's disease, and hyvotension. Ann. Int. Med. 72:751–756, 1970.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Aminoff M.J., Wilcox C.S., Slater J.D.H.:Autonomic defects in paralysis agitans and in the Shy-Drager syndrome. Acta Neurol. Scand. (Suppl.) 51:105–108, 1972.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Appenzeller O., Gross J.E.:Autonomic deficits in Parkinson's syndrome. Arch. Neurol. 24:50–57, 1971.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Martilla R.J., Rinne U.K.:Level of blood pressure in patients with Parkinson's disease: A case control study. Eur. Neurol. 16:73–76, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Aminoff M.J., Gross M., Laatz B., Vakil S.D., Petrie A., Calne D.B.:Arterial blood pressure in patients with Parkinson's disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 38:73–77, 1975.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Calne D.B., Brennan J., Spiers A.S.D., Stern G.M.:Hypotension caused by L-dopa. Br. Med. J. 1:474–477, 1970.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Goetz C.G., Lutge W., Tanner C.M.:Autonomic dysfunction in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 36:73–75, 1986.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Johnson R.H., Lee G., Oppenheimer D.R., Spalding J.W.K.:Autonomic failure with orthostatic hypotension due to intermediolateral column degenration. Quarterly J. Med. 35:276–282, 1966.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Gowers W.R.:A Manual of Diseases of the Nervous System, Philadelphia: Blakiston, 1888.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Shuster S., Burton J.L., Thody A.J., Goolamali S.K., Burton J.L., Plummer N., Bates D.:Melanocyte-stimulating hormone and Parkinsonism. Lancet 1:463–465, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Myers R.D.:The Hypothalamus. Speringfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Gubbay S.S., Barwick D.D.:Two cases of cases of accidential hypothermia in Parkinson's disease with unusual EEG findings. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 29:459–466, 1966.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Szabadi E.:Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Br. Med. J. 288:1399–1400, 1984.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Sandyk R., Iacono R.P.:Neuroleptic malignant syndrome, JAMA 255:2291, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Henderson V.W., Wooten G.F.:Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: A pathogenetic role for dopamine receptor blockade. Neurology 31:132–137, 1981.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Lipman I.J., Boykin M.E., Flora R.E.:Glucose intolerance in Parkinson's disease. J. Chronic Dis. 27:573–579, 1974.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Van Woert M.W., Mueller P.S.:Glucose, insulin and free fatty acid metabolism in Parkinson's disease treated with levodopa. Clin Pharmacol. Ther. 12:360–367, 1971.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Malarkey W.B., Cyrus J., Paulson G.W.:Dissociation of growth hormone and prolactin secretion in Parkinson's disease following chronic L-dopa therapy. J. Clin Endocrinol. Metab. 36:229–235, 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Brown W.A., Van Woert M.H., Ambani L.M.:Effect of apomorphine on growth hormone release in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 37:463–465, 1973.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Sirtor C.R., Bolme P., Azarnoff D.L.:Metabolic responses to acute and chronic L-dopa administration in patients with Parkinsonism. N. Engl. J. Med. 287:729–733, 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Rinne U.K.:Neuroendocrine and extrapyramidal dopamine neurons in Parkinson's disease. In: Neuroendocrine Correlates in Neurology and Psychiatry, Muller E.E., and Agnoli A (eds.), Amsterdam: Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, pp. 119–125, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Eisler T., Thorner M.O., McLeod R.M., Kaiser D.L., Calne D.B.:Protactin secretion in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 31:1356–1359, 1981.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Matzuk M.M., Saper C.B.:Preservation of hypothalamic dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease. Ann. Neurology 18:552–555, 1985.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Laihinen A., Rinne U.K.:Function of dopamine receptors in Parkinson's disease with prolactin responses. Neurology 36:393–395, 1986.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Lawton N.G., MacDermot J.:Abnormal regulation of prolactin release in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 43:1012–1015, 1980.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Marsedn C.D., Parkes J.D.:“On-Off” effects in patients with Parkinson's disease on chronic levodopa therapy. Lancet 1:292–295, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Breazeau P., Vale W., Burgus R.:Hypothalamic polypeptide that inhibits the secretion of immunoreactive pituitary growth hormone. Science 179:77–79, 1973.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Hokfelt T., Efendic S., Johansson O.:Immunohistochemical localization of somatostatin (growth hormone release-inhibiting factor) in the guinea pig brain. Brain Res. 80:165–169, 1974.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Christensen S.E., Dupont E., Hansen A.P.:Parkinson's Disease in Current Progress, Problems and Management, Amsterdam: Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, pp. 49–60, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Dupont E., Christensen S.E., Hansen A.P.:Low cerebrospinal fluid somatostatin in Parkinson's disease: An irreversible abnormality. Neurology 32:312–314, 1982.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Wilkes M.M., Watkins W.B., Stewart R.D., Yen S.S.C.:Localization and quantitation of betaendorphin in human brain and pituitary. Neuroendocrinology 30:113–121, 1980.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Loh H.H., Tseng L.F., Wei L.I.C.H.:β-Endorphin is a potent analgesic agent. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 73:2895–2898, 1976.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Bloom F., Segal D., Ling N., Guillemin R.:Endorphins: Profound behavioral effects in rats suggest new etiological factors in mental illness. Science 194:630–632, 1976.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Holaday J.W., Loh H.H., Li C.H.:Unique behavioral effects of betaendorphin and their relationship to thermoregulation and hypothalamic function. Life Sci. 22:1525–1536, 1978.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Moss IR, Friedman E:Beta-endorphin: Effects on respiratory regulation. Life Sci. 23:1271–1276, 1978.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Margules DL, Moisset B, Lewis MJ, Scibuya H, Pert CB:Beta-endorphin is associated with overeating in genetically obese mice (ob/ob) and rats (fa/fa). Science 202:988–991, 1978.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Sandyk R.:Minreview: The endogenuous opiod system in neurological disorders of the basal ganglia. Life Sci. 37:1655–1663, 1985.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Nappi G., Petraglia F., Martignoni E., Facchinetti F., Bono G., Genazzani A.R.:Beta-endorphin cerebrospinal fluid decrease in untreated parkinsonian patients. Neurology 35:1371–1374, 1985.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Moleman P., Bruinvels J.:Differential effect of morphine on dopaminergic neurons in frontal cortex and striatum of the rat. Life Sci. 19:1277–1282, 1976.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Sandyk R., Iacono R.P.:The spinal dopamine mechanisms and primary sensory symptoms in Parkinson' disease. Int. J. Neurosci. in press, 1986.

  60. Sandyk R., Snider S.R.:Sensory symptoms in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 35:619–620, 1985.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Eisler T., Thorner M.O., McLeod R.M., Kaiser D.L., Calne D.B.:Prolactin secretion in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 31:1356–1359, 1981.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Nappi G., Micieli G., Martignoni E.:Patterns of circadian and ultradian rhythms of core body-temperature in Parkinson's disease. Chronobiologia 104:402–403, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Dekloet E.R., Palkovits M., Mezey E.:Opiocortin peptides: Localization, source, and avenues of transport. Pharmac. Ther. 12:321–351, 1981.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Oliver C., Mical R.S., Porter J.C.:Hypothalamic-pituitary vasculature: Evidence for retrograde blood flow in the pituitary stalk. Endocrinology 101:598–604, 1977.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Torre E., Celis M.E., Chiocchio S.R.:Alpha-MSH and Pro-Leu-Gly-NH 2 (PLG:MIF-1): Influence on dopamine (DA) uptake in crude synaptosomal preparations from rat mediobasal hypothalamus (MBH) and crudate petarch. Peptides 5:669–674, 1984.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Lichtensteiger W., Monnet F.:Differential response of dopamine neurons to alpha-melanotropin and analogues in relation to their endocrine and behavioral potency. Life Sci. 25:2079–2089, 1979.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Kastin A.J., Barbeau A.:Preliminary clinical studies with L-prolyl-L-leucyl-glycine amide in Parkinson's disease. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 107:1079–1081, 1972.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Ehrensing R.H., Kastin A.J., Larsons P.F., Bishop G.A.:Melanocyte-stimulating hormone release inhibiting Factor I and tardive dyskinesia. Diseases of the Nervous System 40:303–306, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Friedman E., Friedman J., Gershon S.:Dopamine synthesis: Stimulation by a hypothalamus factor. Science 182:831–832, 1973.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Von Buttlar-Brentano K.:Zur lebenscheschichte des nucleus basalis, tuberomammilaris, supriopticus, und paraventricularis unter normalen und pathogenen bedingungen. J. Hirnforsch. 1:337–419, 1954.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Hirano A., Zimmerman H.M.:Alzheimer's neurofibrillary changes. Arch. Neurol. 7:227–243, 1962.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Langston J.W., Forno L.S.:The hypothalamus in Parkinson's disease. Ann. Neurol. 3:129–133, 1978.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Lloyd K., Hornykiewicz O.:Parkinson's disease: Activity of L-dopa decarboxylase in discrete brain regions. Science 170:1212–1213, 1970.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Javoy-Agid F., Ruberg M., Pique L., Bertagna X., Tawuet H., Studler J.M., Cesselin F., Epelbaum J., Agid Y.:Biochemistry of the hypothalamus in Parkinson's disease. Neurology 34:672–675, 1984.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Cushing H.:Papers Relating to the Pituitary Body, Hypothalamus and Parasympathetic Nervous System, Baltimore, Charles C. Thomas, pp. 20–24, 1932.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Wertman E., Ovadia H., Feldman S., Abramsky O.:Prevention of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by anterior hypothalamic lesion in the rat. Neurology 35:1468–1470, 1985.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Pouplard A., Emile J., Pouplard F., Hurez D.:Parkinsonism and autoimmunity: Antibody against human sympathetic ganglion cells in Parkinson's disease. In: Advances in Neurology, Poirier LJ, Sourkes TL, Bedard PJ (eds.), Vol. 24, New York, Raven Press, pp. 321–326, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Husby G., Li L., Davis L.E., Wedege E., Kokmen E., Williams R.C.:Antibodies to human caudate nucleus neurons in Hungtington's chorea. Clin. Investigations 59:922–932, 1977.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Cuello A.C.:Control distribution of opioid peptides. Br. Med. Bull. 39:11–16, 1983.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Taquet H., Javoy-Agid F., Cesselin F., Agid Y.:Methionine-enkephalin deficiency in brains of patients with Parkinson's disease. Lancet 1:1367–1368, 1981.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Studler J.M., Javoy-Agid F., Cesselin F., Legrand Z.C., Agid Y.:CCK-8-Immunoreactivity distribution in human brain: Selective decrease in the substantia nigra from Parkinson patients. Brain Res. 243:176–179, 1982.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Thorner M.O.:Deopamine is an important neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system. Lancet 1:662–665, 1975.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Lawton N.F., MacDermot J.:Abnormal regulation of prolactin release in idiopathic Parkinson's disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 43:1012–1015, 1980.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Ruggieri S., Falaschi P., Baldassare M., D'Urso R., Frajes G., Agnoli A.:Neuroendocrine response to active drugs in Parkinson's disease. In: Neuroendocrine Correlates in Neurology and Psychiatry, Mueller EE and Agnoli A (eds.), Amsterdam: Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, pp. 127–137, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Kaiya H., Tanaka T., Takeuchi K., Morita K., Adachi S., Shirakawa H., Ueki H., Namba M.:Decreased level of beta-endorphin-like immunoreactivity in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with senile dementia of Alzheimer type. Life Sci. 33:1039–1043, 1983.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Ohama E., Ikuta F.:Parkinson's disease: Distribution of Lewy bodies and monoamine neuron system. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl.) 34:311–319, 1976.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Langevin H., Emson P.C.:Distribution of substance P. somatostatin and neurotensin in the human hypothalamus. Brain Res. 246:65–69, 1982.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Hokfelt T., Elde R., Fuxe K.:Aminergic and peptidergic pathways in the nervous system with special reference to the hypothalamus. In The Hypothalamus, Reichlin S, Baldessarini RJ, Martin JB (eds.), Research Publications, Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol. 56, New York, Raven Press, pp. 69–135, 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Ehringer H., Hornykiewicz O.:Verteilung von noradrenalin und dopamin in gehirn des menschen und irh verhalten bei erkrankungen des extrapyramidaler systems. Wien Klin. Wochenschr. 38:1236–1239, 1960.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Kopp N., Denoroy L., Thomas M., Gay N., Chazot G., Renaud B.:Increase in noradrenaline synthetizing enzyme activity in medulla oblongata in Parkinson's disease. Acta neuropathol. (Berl) 56:17–21, 1982.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Escourolle R., De Recondo J., Gray J.:Etude anatomopathologique des syndromes parkinsoniens. In: Monoamines, Noyaux Grix Centraux et Syndrome de Parkinson, de Ajuriaguerra J (ed.), Symposium Bel Air IV, Paris: Masson, pp. 173–229, 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Nandy K.:Brain-reactive antibodies in serum of aged mice. In: Neurobiological Aspects of Maturation and Aging, Ford DH (ed.), Progress in Brain Research, Vol. 40, Amsterdam, Elsevier, pp. 437–454, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Sandyk R., Iacono R.P.:Hypothalamic-mediated immune mechanisms and their relevance to the pathoetiology of Parkinson's disease. Int. J. Neurosci. 1986, in press.

  94. Leonhardt H.N., Eberhardt H.G.:Brain-Endocrine Interaction. In Median Eminence: Structure and Function, Basel: Karger, pp. 335–341, 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Johnson R.T., Griffin D.E.:Pathogenesis of viral infections. In: Handbook of Neurology, Vinken PJ and Bruyn GN (eds.), Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 15–34, Vol. 34. 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Brain L.:Psychological aspects of neurology (including consideration of memory sleep, coma, and the dementias). In: Brain's Diseases of the Nervous System, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 654–656, 9th edition, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Tanner C.M., Goetz C.G., Klawans H.L.:Paroxysmal drenching sweats in idiopathic Parkinson's disease response to propanolol. Neurology 32:162, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Uhl G.R., Hackney G.O., Torchia M., Stranov V., Tourtellote W.W., Whitehouse P.J., Tran V., Strittmatter S.:Parkinson's disease: Nigral receptor changes support peptidergic role in nigrostriatal. Ann. Neurology 20:194–203, 1986.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Surgery (Neurosurgery), University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona

    Iacono R. P.

  2. M.Sc. Department of Neurology, Arizona Health Sciences Center, 85724, Tucson, AZ

    Sandyk R. M.D. & Bamford C. R.

Authors
  1. Sandyk R. M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Iacono R. P.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Bamford C. R.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Sandyk, R., Iacono, R.P. & Bamford, C.R. The hypothalamus in Parkinson Disease. Ital J Neuro Sci 8, 227–234 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02337479

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02337479

Key-Words

Search

Navigation