Zusammenfassung
Bei Patienten mit chronischen Rückenschmerzen findet sich eine erweiterte Repräsentation des Rückenareals im primären somatosensorischen Kortex, die mit der Chronizität zunimmt. Dieses „Schmerzgedächtnis“ dürfte einen wesentlichen Anteil an der Chronifizierung haben. Die Umorganisation funktioneller Hirnkarten lässt sich nicht bei schmerzfreien Amputierten nachweisen, und sie ist positiv mit der Stärke des Phantomschmerzes korreliert. Es wird ein Modell der Entstehung von Phantomschmerz dargestellt, bei dem vorhergehende chronische Schmerzzustände eine Rolle spielen. Die Modulation von Plastizität und Phantomschmerz durch anästhesiologische Intervention, NMDA-Antagonisten und Opioide sowie die perioperativen Gabe von NMDA-Antagonisten werden diskutiert. Verhaltensrelevante Stimulation, z. B. durch das Tragen einer myoelektrischen Prothese oder ein Wahrnehmungstraining, kann das Schmerzgedächtnis beeinflussen. Neuere Untersuchungen beziehen auch Hirnareale wie den Gyrus cinguli mit ein.
Abstract
If patients with chronic low back pain are stimulated in the painful region, an expanded representation of the back in the primary somatosensory cortex becomes visible that increases with chronicity. This “pain memory” might play an important role in the chronicity process. In patients with phantom limb pain, e.g. subsequent to the amputation of an arm or leg, a shift in the representation of neighboring areas into the deafferented area in primary somatosensory cortex has been observed. This reorganization of functional brain maps is not present in congenital amputees or amputees without phantom limb pain. The magnitude of such pain is positively correlated with this reorganization. We present a model of phantom limb pain that assigns an important role to pre-existing chronic pain. The modulation of plasticity and phantom limb pain by anesthesiological manipulation, the use of NMDA receptor antagonists and opioids is presented. Behaviorally relevant stimulation, e.g. by the use of a myoelectric prosthesis or sensory discrimination training can also influence the cortical somatosensory pain memory. More recent studies focus also on brain areas such as the cingulate gyrus believed to be involved in the affective processing of pain.
Literatur
Benoist JM, Gautron M, Guilbaud G (1999) Experimental model of trigeminal pain in the rat by constriction of one infraorbital nerve: changes in neuronal activities in the somatosensory cortices corresponding to the infraorbital nerve. Exp Brain Res 126: 383–398
Birbaumer N, Lutzenberger W, Montoya P et al. (1997) Effects of regional anesthesia on phantom limb pain are mirrored in changes in cortical reorganization. J Neurosci 17: 5503–5508
Davis KD, Kiss ZHT, Luo L, Tasker RR, Lozano AM, Dostrovsky JO (1997) Phantom sensations generated by thalamic microstimulation. Nature 391: 385–387
Elbert T, Flor H, Birbaumer N, Knecht S, Hampson S, Larbig W, Taub E (1994) Extensive reorganization of the somatosensory cortex in adult humans after nervous system injury. NeuroReport 5: 2593–2597
Flor H (2002) Phantom limb pain: characteristics, aetiology and treatment. Lancet Neurol 1: 182–189
Flor H, Bauder H (im Druck) Kortikale Plastizität: Grundlagen und funktionelle Bedeutung. In: Eimer M (Hrsg) Enzyklopädie der Psychologie. Bd Kognitive Neurowissenschaft. Hogrefe, Göttingen.
Flor H, Birbaumer N, Sherman R (2000) Phantom limb pain. Clin Pain Updates 8: 1–4
Flor H, Braun C, Elbert T, Birbaumer N (1997) Extensive reorganization of primary somatosensory cortex in chronic back pain patients. Neurosci Lett 224: 5–8
Flor H, Denke C, Schaefer M, Grüsser S (2001) Effect of sensory discrimination training on cortical reorganisation and phantom limb pain. Lancet 357: 1763–1764
Flor H, Elbert T, Knecht Set al. (1995) Phantom-limb pain as a perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization following arm amputation. Nature 375: 482–484
Flor H, Elbert T, Mühlnickel W, Pantev C, Wienbruch C, Taub E (1998) Cortical reorganization and phantom phenomena in congenital and traumatic upper-extremity amputees. Exp Brain Res 119: 205–212
Huse E, Larbig W, Flor H, Birbaumer, N (2001) The effects of opioids on phantom limb pain and cortical reorganization. Pain 90: 47–55
Jenkins WM, Merzenich MM, Ochs MT, Allard T, Guic-Robles E (1990) Functional reorganization of primary somatosensory cortex in adult owl monkeys after behaviorally controlled tactile stimulation. J Neurophysiol 63: 82–104
Jones EG (2000) Cortical and subcortical contributions to activity-dependent plasticity in primate somatosensory cortex. Ann Rev Neurosci 23: 1–37
Kenshalo DR, Douglass DK (1995) The role of the cerebral cortex in the experience of pain. In: Bromm B, Desmedt JE (eds) Pain and the brain, vol 22. Raven, New York, pp 21–34
Kleinböhl D, Hölzl R, Möltner A, Rommel C, Weber C, Osswald PM (1999) Psychophysical measures of sensitization to tonic heat discriminate chronic pain patients. Pain 81: 35–43
Knecht S, Ringelstein E-B (1999) Neuronale Plastizität am Beispiel des somatosensorischen Systems. Nervenarzt 70: 889–898
Lotze M, Grodd W, Birbaumer N, Erb M, Huse E, Flor H (1999) Does use of a myoelectric prosthesis reduce cortical reorganization and phantom limb pain? Nat Neurosci 2: 501–502
Lotze M, Grodd, W, Larbig W, Birbaumer N (2001) Phantom movements and pain. An fMRI study in upper limb amputees. Brain 124: 2268–2277
Katz J, Melzack R (1990) Pain ‚memories‘ in phantom limbs: review and clinical observations. Pain 43: 319–336
Montoya P, Ritter K, Huse E et al. (1998) The cortical somatotopic map and phantom phenomena in subjects with congenital limb atrophy and traumatic amputees with phantom limb pain. Eur J Neurosci 10: 1095–1102
Ramachandran VS, Steward M, Rogers-Ramachandran D (1992) Perceptual correlates of massive cortical reorganization. NeuroReport 3: 583–586
Spitzer M (1997) Noise-driven neuroplasticity in self-organizing feature maps: a neurocomputational model of phantom limbs. MD Comput 14: 192–199
Vos BP, Benoist JM, Gautron M, Guilbaud G (2000) Changes in neuronal activities in the two ventral posterior medial thalamic nuclei in an experimental model of trigeminal pain in the rat by constriction of one infraorbital nerve. Somatosens Motor Res 17: 109–122
Weiss T, Miltner WHR, Adler T, Brückner L, Taub E (1999) Decrease in phantom limb pain associated with prosthesis-induced increased use of an amputation stump in humans. Neurosci Lett 272: 131–134
Wiech K, Töpfner S, Kiefer RT et al. (2002) Effects of early postoperative regional analgesia and memantine on phantom limb pain and cortical reorganization. (submitted)
Woolf CJ, Salter MW (2000) Neuronal plasticity: increasing the gain in pain. Science 288: 1765–1769
Interessenkonflikt:
Keine Angaben
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Flor, H. Visualisierung von Phantom- und Rückenschmerzen durch bildgebende Verfahren. Orthopäde 33, 553–557 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00132-003-0614-z
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00132-003-0614-z