Abstract
Rationale
Acute re-exposure to cocaine or drug cues associated with cocaine use can elicit drug craving and relapse. Neuroimaging studies have begun to define neurobiological substrates underlying the acute effects of cocaine or cocaine cues in cocaine-dependent subjects.
Objective
The present study was the first to use functional brain imaging to document acute cocaine-induced changes in brain activity during active drug use in nonhuman primates.
Materials and methods
Positron emission tomography imaging with O15-labeled water was used to measure drug-induced changes in cerebral blood flow. The acute effects of cocaine administered noncontingently were characterized in four drug-naïve rhesus monkeys. The same subjects were trained to self-administer cocaine under a fixed ratio schedule during image acquisition. Subsequently, three subjects with an extensive history of cocaine use were trained to self-administer cocaine under a second-order schedule. The same subjects also underwent extinction sessions during which saline was substituted for cocaine under the second-order schedule.
Results
Noncontingent administration of cocaine in drug-naïve subjects induced robust activation of prefrontal cortex localized primarily to the dorsolateral regions. In contrast, the pattern of brain activation induced by self-administered cocaine differed qualitatively and included anterior cingulate cortex. Moreover, drug-associated stimuli during extinction also induced robust activation of prefrontal cortex.
Conclusions
The effects of cocaine and associated cues extend beyond the limbic system to engage brain areas involved in cognitive processes. The identification of neural circuits underlying the direct pharmacological and conditioned stimulus effects of cocaine may be highly relevant toward efforts to develop treatments for cocaine addiction.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Boileau I, Dagher A, Leyton M, Welfeld K, Booij L, Diksic M, Benkelfat C (2007) Conditioned dopamine release in humans: a positron emission tomography [11C]raclopride study with amphetamine. J Neurosci 27:3998–4003
Breiter HC, Gollub RL, Weisskoff RM, Kennedy DN, Makris N, Berke JD, Goodman JM, Kantor HL, Gastfriend DR, Riorden JP, Mathew RT, Rosen BR, Hyman SE (1997) Acute effects of cocaine on human brain activity and emotion. Neuron 19:591–611
Childress AR, Hole AV, Ehrman RN, Robbins SJ, McLellan AT, O’Brien CP (1993) Cue reactivity and cue reactivity interventions in drug dependence. NIDA Res Monogr 137:73–95
Childress AR, Mozley PD, McElgin W, Fitzgerald J, Reivich M, O’Brien CP (1999) Limbic activation during cue-induced cocaine craving. Am J Psychiatry 156:11–18
Devinsky O, Morrell MJ, Vogt BA (1995) Contributions of anterior cingulate cortex to behaviour. Brain 118(Pt 1):279–306
Dworkin SI, Mirkis S, Smith JE (1995) Response-dependent versus response-independent presentation of cocaine: differences in the lethal effects of the drug. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 117:262–266
Ehrman RN, Robbins SJ, Childress AR, O’Brien CP (1992) Conditioned responses to cocaine-related stimuli in cocaine abuse patients. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 107:523–529
Friston KJ, Worsley KJ, Frackowiak RSJ, Mazziotta JC, Evans AC (1994) Assessing the significance of focal activations using their spatial extent. Hum Brain Mapp 1:210–220
Fuster J (1997) The prefrontal cortex. Anatomy, physiology and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe, 3rd edn. Raven, New York
Garavan H, Pankiewicz J, Bloom A, Cho JK, Sperry L, Ross TJ, Salmeron BJ, Risinger R, Kelley D, Stein EA (2000) Cue-induced cocaine craving: neuroanatomical specificity for drug users and drug stimuli. Am J Psychiatry 157:1789–1798
Grant S, London ED, Newlin DB, Villemagne VL, Liu X, Contoreggi C, Phillips RL, Kimes AS, Margolin A (1996) Activation of memory circuits during cue-elicited cocaine craving. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:12040–12045
Hemby SE, Co C, Koves TR, Smith JE, Dworkin SI (1997) Differences in extracellular dopamine concentrations in the nucleus accumbens during response-dependent and response-independent cocaine administration in the rat. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 133:7–16
Henry TR, Votaw JR, Pennell PB, Epstein CM, Bakay RA, Faber TL, Grafton ST, Hoffman JM (1999) Acute blood flow changes and efficacy of vagus nerve stimulation in partial epilepsy. Neurology 52(6):1166–1173
Howell LL, Wilcox KM (2001) Intravenous drug self-administration in nonhuman primates. In: Buccafusco JJ (ed) Methods of behavior analysis in neuroscience. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 91–110
Howell LL, Hoffman JM, Votaw JR, Landrum AM, Jordan JF (2001) An apparatus and behavioral training protocol to conduct positron emission tomography (PET) neuroimaging in conscious rhesus monkeys. J Neurosci Methods 106:161–169
Howell LL, Hoffman JM, Votaw JR, Landrum AM, Wilcox KM, Lindsey KP (2002) Cocaine-induced brain activation determined by positron emission tomography neuroimaging in conscious rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 159:154–160
Jaffe JH (1990) Trivializing dependence. Br J Addict 85:1425–1427
Jaffe JH, Cascella NG, Kumor KM, Sherer MA (1989) Cocaine-induced cocaine craving. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 97:59–64
Katz JL, Goldberg SR (1991) Second-order schedules of drug injection: implications for understanding reinforcing effects of abused drugs. Adv Subst Abuse 4:205–223
Kilts CD, Schweitzer JB, Quinn CK, Gross RE, Faber TL, Muhammad F, Ely TD, Hoffman JM, Drexler KP (2001) Neural activity related to drug craving in cocaine addiction. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58:334–341
Kosten TR, Scanley BE, Tucker KA, Oliveto A, Prince C, Sinha R, Potenza MN, Skudlarski P, Wexler BE (2006) Cue-induced brain activity changes and relapse in cocaine-dependent patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 31:644–650
Kufahl PR, Li Z, Risinger RC, Rainey CJ, Wu G, Bloom AS, Li SJ (2005) Neural responses to acute cocaine administration in the human brain detected by fMRI. NeuroImage 28:904–914
Leshner AI (1997) Addiction is a brain disease, and it matters. Science 278:45–47
Lyons D, Friedman DP, Nader MA, Porrino LJ (1996) Cocaine alters cerebral metabolism within the ventral striatum and limbic cortex of monkeys. J Neurosci 16:1230–1238
Maas LC, Lukas SE, Kaufman MJ, Weiss RD, Daniels SL, Rogers VW, Kukes TJ, Renshaw PF (1998) Functional magnetic resonance imaging of human brain activation during cue-induced cocaine craving. Am J Psychiatry 155:124–126
Mathew RJ, Wilson WH, Lowe JV, Humphries D (1996) Acute changes in cranial blood flow after cocaine hydrochloride. Biol Psychiatry 40:609–616
Neter J, Wasserman W, Kutner MH (1990) Applied linear statistical models: regression, analysis of variance, and experimental designs, 3rd edn. Irwin, Homewood
O’Brien CP, Childress AR, McLellan AT, Ehrman R (1992) Classical conditioning in drug-dependent humans. Ann N Y Acad Sci 654:400–415
O’Brien CP, Childress AR, Ehrman R, Robbins SJ (1998) Conditioning factors in drug abuse: can they explain compulsion? J Psychopharmacol 12:15–22
Paulus MP, Tapert SF, Schuckit MA (2005) Neural activation patterns of methamphetamine-dependent subjects during decision making predict relapse. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62:761–768
Porrino LJ, Lyons D, Miller MD, Smith HR, Friedman DP, Daunais JB, Nader MA (2002) Metabolic mapping of the effects of cocaine during the initial phases of self-administration in the nonhuman primate. J Neurosci 22:7687–7694
Porrino LJ, Lyons D, Smith HR, Daunais JB, Nader MA (2004) Cocaine self-administration produces a progressive involvement of limbic, association, and sensorimotor striatal domains. J Neurosci 24:3554–3562
Schindler CW, Panlilio LV, Goldberg SR (2002) Second-order schedules of drug self-administration in animals. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 163:327–344
Talairach J, Tournoux P (1988) Co-planar stereotaxic atlas of the human brain. Thieme Medical, New York
Vogt BA, Finch DM, Olson CR (1992) Functional heterogeneity in cingulate cortex: the anterior executive and posterior evaluative regions. Cereb Cortex 2:435–443
Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Fowler JS, Hitzemann R, Angrist B, Gatley SJ, Logan J, Ding Y-S, Pappas N (1999) Association of methylphenidate-induced craving with changes in right striato-orbitofrontal metabolism in cocaine abusers: implications in addiction. Am J Psychiatry 156:19–26
Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Ma Y, Fowler JS, Zhu W, Maynard L, Telang F, Vaska P, Ding Y-S, Wong C, Swanson JM (2003) Expectation enhances the regional brain metabolic and the reinforcing effects of stimulants in cocaine abusers. J Neurosci 23:11461–11468
Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Telang F, Fowler JS, Logan J, Childress A-R, Jayne M, Ma Y, Wong C (2006a) Cocaine cues and dopamine in dorsal striatum: mechanism of craving in cocaine addiction. J Neurosci 26:6583–6588
Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Ma Y, Fowler JS, Wong C, Jayne M, Telang F, Swanson JM (2006b) Effects of expectation on the brain metabolic responses to methylphenidate and to its placebo in non-drug abusing subjects. NeuroImage 32:1782–1792
Volkow ND, Wang G-J, Telang F, Fowler JS, Logan J, Childress A-R, Jayne M, Ma Y, Wong C (2008) Dopamine increases in striatum do not elicit craving in cocaine abusers unless they are coupled with cocaine cues. NeuroImage 39:1266–1273
Votaw JR, Li HH (1995) Analysis of PET neurofunctional mapping studies. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 15(3):492–504
Votaw JR, Grafton ST, Hoffman JM (1998) Calculation of the probability that an activation site has occurred by chance. In: Carson RE, Daube-Witherspoon ME, Herscovitch P (eds) Quantitative functional brain imaging with positron emission tomography. Academic, New York, pp 229–235
Votaw JR, Faber TL, Popp CA, Henry TR, Trudeau JD, Woodard JL, Mao H, Hoffman JM, Song AW (1999) A confrontational naming task produces congruent increases and decreases in PET and fMRI. Neuroimage 10(4):347–356
Wexler BE, Gottschalk CH, Fulbright RK, Prohovnik I, Lacadie CM, Rounsaville BJ, Gore JC (2001) Functional magnetic resonance imaging of cocaine craving. Am J Psychiatry 158:86–95
Woods RP, Mazziotta JC, Cherry SR (1993) MRI-PET registration with automated algorithm. J Comput Assist Tomogr 17:536–546
Woods RP, Grafton ST, Holmes CJ, Cherry SR, Mazziotta JC (1998a) Automated image registration: I. General methods and intrasubject, intramodality validation. J Comput Assist Tomogr 22(1):139–152
Woods RP, Grafton ST, Watson JD, Sicotte NL, Mazziotta JC (1998b) Automated image registration: II. Intersubject validation of linear and nonlinear models. J Comput Assist Tomogr 22(1):153–165
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance of Tango Howard, James Jordan, Delicia Votaw, Kevin Murnane, and Peggy Plant. This research was supported by US Public Health Service Grants DA10344, DA00517, and RR00165 (Division of Research Resources, National Institutes of Health).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Howell, L.L., Votaw, J.R., Goodman, M.M. et al. Cortical activation during cocaine use and extinction in rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology 208, 191–199 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-009-1720-3
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-009-1720-3