Abstract
This paper describes the use of headspace solid-phase microextraction (SPME) combined with gas chromatography to identify the signature odors that law enforcement-certified detector dogs alert to when searching for drugs, explosives, and humans. Background information is provided on the many types of detector dog available and specific samples highlighted in this paper are the drugs cocaine and 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA or Ecstasy), the explosives TNT and C4, and human remains. Studies include the analysis and identification of the headspace "fingerprint" of a variety of samples, followed by completion of double-blind dog trials of the individual components in an attempt to isolate and understand the target compounds that dogs alert to. SPME–GC/MS has been demonstrated to have a unique capability for the extraction of volatiles from the headspace of forensic specimens including drugs and explosives and shows great potential to aid in the investigation and understanding of the complicated process of canine odor detection. Major variables evaluated for the headspace SPME included fiber chemistry and a variety of sampling times ranging from several hours to several seconds and the resultant effect on ratios of isolated volatile components. For the drug odor studies, the CW/DVB and PDMS SPME fibers proved to be the optimal fiber types. For explosives, the results demonstrated that the best fibers in field and laboratory applications were PDMS and CW/DVB, respectively. Gas chromatography with electron capture detector (GC/ECD) and mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was better for analysis of nitromethane and TNT odors, and C-4 odors, respectively. Field studies with detector dogs have demonstrated possible candidates for new pseudo scents as well as the potential use of controlled permeation devices as non-hazardous training aids providing consistent permeation of target odors.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Furton kg, Myers LJ (2001) Talanta 43:487–500
Anon (1989) Crime and chemical analysis. In: Res News Sci 3/24:1555
Oyler J, Darwin WD, Cone E (1996) J Anal Toxicol 20:213–216
Negrusz A, Perry JL, Moore CM (1998) J Forensic Sci 43:626–629
Furton kg, Hsu Y-L, Luo T, Alvarez N, Lagos P (1997) In Hicks J, De Forest P, Baylor VM (eds) Forensic evidence analysis and crime scene investigation, Proc SPIE 2941:56–62
Furton kg, Hsu Y-L, Luo T, Rose S (1999) In: Higgins K (ed) Investigation and forensic science technologies, Proc SPIE 3576:136–141
Furton kg, Hong Y, Hsu Y-L, Luo T, Rose S, Walton J (2002) J Chromatogr Sci 40:147–155
Vu DT (2001) J Forensic Sci 46:1014–1024
Anon (2001) Drug Identification Bible. Amera-Chem Grand Junction CO
Shulgin AT (1986) J Psychoactive Drugs 18:291–304
Davis WM, Borne RF (1984) Substance Alcohol Actions/Misuse 5:105–110
O'Brien BA, Bonicamp JM, Jones DW (1982) J Anal Toxicol 6:143–147
Braun U, Shulgin AT, Braun G (1980) J Pharm Sci 69:192–195
Inoue T, Tanaka K, Ohmori T, Togawa Y, Seta S (1994) Forensic Sci Int 69:97
Perkal M, Ng YL, Pearson JR (1994) Forensic Sci Int 69:77–87
Verweij A (1990) Forensic Sci Int 45:91–96
Renton R (1993) Forensic Sci Int 60:189–202
Mas F (1995) Forensic Sci Int 71:225–231
Lorenzo N (2002) MS thesis, FIU
Fetterolf DD (1995) In: J Yinon (ed) Forensic applications of mass spectrometry. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 215–257
Hallowell SF, Fisher DS, Brasher JD, Malone RL, Gresham G, Rae C (1997) In: Pilon P, Burmeister S (eds) Chemistry and biology-based technologies for contraband detection, Proc SPIE 2937:227–234
Kolla P (1997) In: Pilon P, Burmeister S (eds) Chemistry and biology-based technologies for contraband detection, Proc SPIE, 2937:236–244
Williams M, Johnston JM, Cicoria M, Paletz E, Waggoner LP, Edge CC, Hallowell SF (1998) In: DePersia AT, Pennella JJ (eds) Enforcement and securities technologies, Proc SPIE 3575:291–301
Wan T (2002) MS thesis, FIU
Schoon GAA (1998) J Forensic Sci 43:70–75
Killam EW (1990) The detection of human remains. Thomas
Komar D (1999) J Forensic Sci 44:405–408
Haglund WD, Sorg MH (1997) Forensic taphonomy. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Rebmann A, David E, Sorg MH (2000) Cadaver dog handbook. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Tahim NM, Bennett LW, Shellem TA, Doerr JA (2002) J Agric Food Chem 50:5012–5015
Bonilla M, Enriquez LG, McNair HM (1997) J Chromatogr Sci 35:53–56
Kim H, Nochetto C, McConnell LL (2002) Anal Chem 74:1054–1060
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the numerous graduate and undergraduate students who assisted in the laboratory and field experiments, members of the various drug dog detection teams who participated in this study and the trainers who coordinated the field testing including Sgt Wesley Dallas and Officer Allen Lowy of the Miami-Dade Police department, Trooper Mike Van Leer of the Florida Highway Patrol (FHP), and Bob Anderson of the Palm Beach County Sheriffs Office. Partial financial support from Supelco, Inc., and the National Forensic Science Technology Center (NFSTC) is gratefully acknowledged.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lorenzo, N., Wan, T., Harper, R.J. et al. Laboratory and field experiments used to identify Canis lupus var. familiaris active odor signature chemicals from drugs, explosives, and humans. Anal Bioanal Chem 376, 1212–1224 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-003-2018-7
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-003-2018-7