Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Behavioral Interventions for HIV-Positive and HCV-Positive Drug users

  • Featured Review Article
  • Published:
AIDS and Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

The nature, context and frequency of use of various licit and illicit non-injection drugs associated with an elevated risk of HIV infection. Beyond HIV, a high proportion of HIV-infected IDUs are co-infected with HCV (hepatitis C virus). In this review, we provide a brief review of the epidemiology of these problems, discuss behavioral interventions that can reduce ongoing high risk behaviors among HIV-seropositive IDUs and MSM-DUs, and review the literature which has evaluated their effectiveness. The majority of these interventions have focused on HIV-seronegative heterosexuals and therefore need to be considered in this larger context; however, where possible we discuss the potential impact of these interventions among HIV-seropositive persons. In addition, we briefly discuss interventions which have the potential to simultaneously reduce ongoing transmission of both HIV and HCV. Finally, given the dearth of information on the effectiveness of behavioral interventions in reducing the burden of the HIV and HCV epidemics among persons already infected with either or both viruses, we describe some newer, promising interventions and offer suggestions for future studies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Alter, M. J., Kruszon-Moran, D., Nainan, O. V., McQuillan, G. M., Gao, F., Moyer, L. A., Kaslow, R., and Margolis, H. S. (1999). The prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1988 through 1994. New England Journal of Medicine, 341, 556–562.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Altice, F. L., Mezger, J. A., Hodges, J., Bruce, R. D., Marinovich, A., Walton, M., Springer, S. A., and Friedland, G. H. (2004). Developing a directly administered antiretroviral therapy intervention for HIV-infected drug users: implications for program replication. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 38, S376–S387.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Auerbach, J. D., and Coates, T. J. (2000). HIV prevention research: accomplishments and challenges for the third decade of AIDS. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 29–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ball, A. L. (2002). Overview: Policies and interventions to stem HIV-1 epidemics associated with injecting drug use. In G. Stimson, D. C. Des Jarlais, and A. Ball (Eds.), Drug Injecting and HIV Infection: Global Dimensions and Local Responses (pp. 201–232). London: UCL Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ball, J. C., Lange, W. R., Myers, C. P., and Friedman, S. R. (1988). Reducing the risk of AIDS through methadone maintenance treatment. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 29, 214–226.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bastos, F. I., and Strathdee, S. A. (2000). Evaluating Effectiveness of Syringe Exchange Programmes: Current Issues and Future Prospects. Social Science & Medicine, 51, 1771–1782.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beckett, M., Burnam, A., Collins, R. L., Kanouse, D. E., and Beckman, R. (2003). Substance use and high-risk sex among people with HIV: a comparison across exposure groups. AIDS and Behavior, 7, 209–219.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benotsch, E. G., Kalichman, S., and Cage, M. (2002). Men who have met sex partners via the Internet: prevalence, predictors, and implications for HIV prevention. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 177–183

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bluthenthal, R. N., Kral, A. H., Gee, L., Erringer, E. A., and Edlin, B. R. (2000). The effect of syringe exchange use on high-risk injection drug users: a cohort study. AIDS, 14, 605–611.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Booth, R. E., Crowley, and Zhang, Y. (1996). Substance abuse treatment entry, retention, and effectiveness: out-of-treatment opiate injection drug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 42, 11–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, J. S., Nomura, C., and Cohen, P. (1989). A network of influences on adolescent drug users involvement: Neighborhood, school, peer, and family. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 115, 125–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooner, R., Kidorf, M., King, V., Beilenson, P., Svikis, D., and Vlahov, D. (1998). Drug abuse treatment success among needle exchange participants. Public Health Reports, 113, 129–39.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bruneau, J., Lamothe, F., Franco, E., Lachance, N., Desy, M., Soto, J., and Vincelette, J. (1997). High rates of HIV infection among injection drug users participating in needle exchange programs in Montreal: results of a cohort study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 146, 994–1002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bull, S. S., Piper, P., and Rietmeijer, C. (2002). Men who have sex with men and also inject drugs-profiles of risk related to the synergy of sex and drug injection behaviors. Journal of Homosexuality, 42, 31–51.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buning, E. C., Coutinho, R. A., van Brussel, G. H., van Santen, G. W., and van Zadelhoff, A. W. (1986). Preventing AIDS in drug addicts in Amsterdam. Lancet, 1, 1435.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carrieri, M. P., Rey, D., Loundou, A., Lepeu, G., Sobel, A., Obadia, Y., and The MANIF-2000 Study Group (2003). Evaluation of buprenorphine maintenance treatment in a French cohort of HIV-infected injecting drug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 72, 13–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Catania, J. A., Morin, S. F., Canchola, J., Pollack, L., Chang, J., and Coates, T. J. (2000). Health care policy. U.S. priorities-HIV prevention. Science, 290, 717.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Celentano, D. D., Galai, N., Sethi, A. K., Shah, N. G., Strathdee, S. A., Vlahov, D., and Gallant, J. E. (2001). Time to initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected injection drug users. AIDS, 15, 1707–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Celentano, D. D., Vlahov, D., Cohn, S., Anthony, J. C., Solomon, L., and Nelson, K. E. (1991). Risk factors for shooting gallery use and cessation among intravenous drug users. American Journal of Public Health, 81, 1291–1295.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Celentano, D. D., Vlahov, D., Cohn, S., Shadle, V. M., Obasanjo, O., and Moore, R. D. (1998). Self-reported antiretroviral therapy in injection drug users. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 544–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004). High-Risk Sexual Behavior by HIV-Positive Men Who Have Sex with Men — 16 Sites, United States, 2000–2002. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 53, 891–894. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5338a1.htm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chiasson, M. A., Stoneburner, R. L., Hildebrandt, D. S., Ewing, W. E., Telzak, E. E., and Jaffe, H. W. (1991). Heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 associated with the use of smokeable freebase cocaine (crack). AIDS, 9, 1121–1126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chng, C. L., and Geliga-Vargas, J. (2000). Ethnic identity, gay identity, sexual sensation seeking and HIV risk taking among multiethnic men who have sex with men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 12, 326–339.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chu, P. L., McFarland, W., Gibson, S., Weide, D., Henne, J., Miller, P., Partridge, T., and Schwarcz, S. (2003). Viagra use in a community-recruited sample of men who have sex with men, San Francisco. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 33, 191–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cleary, P. D., Van Devanter, N., Steilen, M., Stuart, A., Shipton-Levy, R., McMullen, W., Rogers, T. F., Singer, E., Avorn, J., and Pindyck, J. (1995). A randomized trial of an education and support program for HIV-infected individuals. AIDS, 9, 1271–1278.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conway, B., Prasad, J., Reynolds, R. et. al. (2004). Directly Observed Therapy for the Management of HIV Infected Patients in a Methadone Program. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 38, S402–S408.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Copenhaver, M., Avants, S. K., Warburton, L. A., and Margolin, A. (2003). Intervening effectively with drug abusers infected with HIV: taking into account the potential for cognitive impairment. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 35, 209–18.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, I., Hammack, P. L., McKirnan, D. J., Ostrow, D., Zamboni, B. D., Robinson, B., and Hope, B. (2003). Sexual sensation seeking, reduced concern about HIV and sexual risk behaviour among gay men in primary relationships. AIDS Care, 15, 513–24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crofts, N., Nigro, L., Oman, K., Stevenson, E., and Sherman, J. (1997). Methadone maintenance and hepatitis C virus infection among injecting drug users. Addiction, 92, 999–1005.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cross, J. E., Saunders, C. M., and Bartelli, D. (1998). The effectiveness of educational and needle exchange programs: a meta-analysis of HIV prevention strategies for injecting drug users. Quality and Quantity, 32, 165–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deren, S., Beardsley, M., Tortu, S., and Goldstein, M. F. (1998). HIV serostatus and changes in risk behaviors among drug injectors and crack users. AIDS and Behavior, 2, 171–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Des Jarlais, D. C. (1989). AIDS prevention programs for intravenous drug users: Diversity and evolutions. International Review of Psychiatry, 1, 101–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Des Jarlais, D. C., Hagan, H., Friedman, S. R., Friedmann, P., Goldberg, D., Frischer, M., Green, S., Tunving, K., Ljungberg, B., Wodak, A., et al. (1995). Maintaining low HIV seroprevalence in populations of injecting drug users. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 274, 1226–1231.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Des Jarlais, D. C., Marmor, M., Friedmann, P., Titus, S., Aviles, E., Deren, S., Torian, L., Glebatis, D., Murrill, C., Monterroso, E., and Friedman, S. R. (2000). HIV incidence among injection drug users in New York City, 1992–1997: evidence for a declining epidemic. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 352–359.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Des Jarlais, D. C., Perlis, T., Arasteh, K., Hagan, H., Milliken, J., Braine, N., Yancovitz, S., Mildvan, D., Perlman, D. C., Maslow, C., and Friedman, S. R. (2004). Informed altruism” and “partner restriction” in the reduction of HIV infection in injecting drug users entering detoxification treatment in New York City, 1990–2001. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 35, 158–166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, C., Thiede, H., Perdue, T., Secura, G. M., Valleroy, L., Mackellar, D., Corey, L. and Seattle Young Men's Survey Team. (2003). Viral hepatitis among young men who have sex with men: prevalence of infection, risk behaviors, and vaccination. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 30, 425–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiScenza, S., Nies, M., and Jordan, C. (1996). Effectiveness of counseling in the health promotion of HIV-positive clients in the community. Public Health Nursing, 13, 209–216.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dolezal, C., Carballo-Dieguez, A., Nieves-Rosa, L., and Diaz, F. (2000). Substance use and sexual risk behavior: understanding their association among four ethnic groups of Latino men who have sex with men. Journal of Substance Abuse, 11, 323–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drucker, E., Lurie, P., Wodak, A., and Alcabes, P. (1998). Measuring harm reduction: the effects of needle and syringe exchange programs and methadone maintenance on the ecology of HIV. AIDS, 12, S217–S230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edlin, B. R., Irwin, K. L., Faruque, S., McCoy, C. B., Word, C., Serrano, Y., Inciardi, J. A., Bowser, B. P., Schilling, R. F., and Holmberg, S. D. (1994). Intersecting epidemics—crack cocaine use and HIV infection among inner-city young adults. New England Journal of Medicine, 331, 1422–1427.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elliot, D. S., Huizinga, D., and Ageton, S. S. (1985). Explaining delinquency and drug use. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, J. D., and Fisher, W. A. (1992). Changing AIDS risk behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 455–474.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, J. D., and Misovich, S. J. (1990). Social influence and AIDS-preventive behaviors. In J. Edwards, R. Tindale, L. Heath, and E. Posavac (Eds.), Applying social influence processes in preventing social problems (pp. 39–70). New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., Des Jarlais, D. C., Sotheran, J. L., Garber, J., Cohen, H., and Smith, D. (1987). AIDS and self- organization among intravenous drug users. The International Journal of the Addictions, 23, 201–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, S. R., Jose, B., Neaigus, A., Goldstein, M., Curtis, R., Ildefonso, G., Mota, P., and Des Jarlais, D. C. (1994). Consistent condom use in relationships between seropositive injecting drug users and sex partners who do not inject drugs. AIDS, 8, 357–61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Galvan, F. H., Burnam, M. A., and Bing, E. G. (2003). Co-occurring psychiatric symptoms and drug dependence or heavy drinking among HIV-positive people. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 35, 153–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garfein, R. S., Doherty, M. C., Monterroso, E. R., Thomas, D. L., Nelson, K. E., and Vlahov, D. (1998). Prevalence and incidence of hepatitis C virus infection among young adults injection drug users. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 8, S11–S19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garfein, R. S., Vlahov, D., Galai, N., Doherty, M. C., and Nelson, K. E. (1996). Viral infections in short-term injection drug users; the prevalence of the hepatitis C, hepatitis B, human immunodeficiency virus, and human T-lymphotropic virus. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 655–661.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerberding, J. (1995). Management of occupational exposure to blood borne viruses. New England Journal of Medicine, 332, 444–451.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, C. M., Stall, R., and Cheever, L. W. (2004). Prevention interventions with persons living with HIV/AIDS: Challenges, Progress, and Research Priorities. Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes, 37, S53–S57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenblatt, J. C., and Gfoerer, J. C. (1996). Methamphetamine abuse in the United States. Analysis of Substance Abuse and Treatment Need Issues. Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, H., and Des Jarlais, D. C. (2000). HIV and HCV infection among injecting drug users. The Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 67, 423–8.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hagan, H., DesJarlais, D. C., Friedman, S. R., Purchase, D., and Alter, M. J. (1995). Reduced risk of Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C among injection drug users in the Tacoma Syringe Exchange Program. American Journal of Public Health, 1531–1537.

  • Hahn, J. A., Vranizan, K. M., and Moss, A. R. (1997). Who uses needle exchange? A study of injection drug users in treatment in San Francisco, 1989–1990. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 15, 157–64.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halkitis, P. N., Parsons, J. T., and Wilton, L. (2003). Barebacking among gay and bisexual men in New York City: explanations for the emergence of intentional unsafe behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 32, 351–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heimer, R. (1998). Can syringe exchange serve as a conduit to substance abuse treatment? Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 15, 183–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heimer, R., Khoshnood, K., Bigg, D., Guydish, J., and Jungue, B. (1998). Syringe use and reuse: effects of syringe exchange programs in four cities. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 18, S37.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmberg, S. D. (1996). The estimated prevalence and incidence of HIV in 96 large US metropolitan areas. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 643–654.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hubbard, R. L., Marsden, M. E., Cavanaugh, E., Rachal, J. V., and Ginzburg, H. M. (1988). Role of drug-abuse treatment in limiting the spread of AIDS. Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 10, 377–84.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen, R. S., Holtgrave, D. R., Valdiserri, R. O., Shepherd, M., Gayle, H. D., and De Cock, K. M.(2001). The Serostatus Approach to Fighting the HIV Epidemic: prevention strategies for infected individuals. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1019–1024.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R. E., Chutuape, M. A., Strain, E. C., Walsh, S. L., Stitzer, M. L., and Bigelow, G. E. (2000). A comparison of levomethadyl acetate, buprenorphine, and methadone for opioid dependence. New England Journal of Medicine, 343, 1290–1297.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, W. D., Hedges, L. V., Ramirez, G., Semaan, S., Norman, L. R., Sogolow, E., Sweat, M. D., and Diaz, R. M. (2002). HIV prevention research for men who have sex with men: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 30, S118–S129.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalichman, S. C., Heckman, T., and Kelly, J. A. (1996). Sensation seeking as an explanation for the association between substance use and HIV-related risky sexual behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25, 141–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalichman, S. C., Kelly, J. A., and Rompa, D. (1997). Continued high-risk sex among HIV seropositive gay and bisexual men seeking HIV prevention services. Health Psychology, 16, 369–373.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalichman, S. C., Rompa, D., Cage, M., DiFonzo, K., Simpson, D., Austin, J., Luke, W., Buckles, J., Kyomugisha, F., Benotsch, E., Pinkerton, S., and Graham, J. (2001). Effectiveness of an intervention to reduce HIV transmission risks in HIV-positive people. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 21, 84–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalichman, S. C., Weinhardt, L., DiFonzo, K., Austin, J., and Luke, W. (2002). Sensation seeking and alcohol use as markers of sexual transmission risk behavior in HIV-positive men. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 24, 229–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, A. A., Kent, C., McFarland, W., and Klausner, J. D. (2001). Cruising on the Internet highway. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 28, 89–93.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kosten, T., Oliveto, A., Feingold, A., Poling, J., Sevarino, K., McCance-Katz, E., Stine, S., Gonzalez, G., and Gonsai, K. (2003). Desipramine and contingency management for cocaine and opiate dependence in buprenorphine maintained patients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 70, 315–325

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kral, A. H., Bluthenthal, R. N., Lorvick, J., Gee, L., Bacchetti, P., and Edlin, B. R. (2001). Sexual transmission of HIV-1 among injection drug users in San Francisco, USA: risk-factor analysis. Lancet, 357, 1397–1401.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Langendam, M. W., van Brussel, G. H., Coutinho, R. A., and van Ameijden, E. J. (1999). Methadone maintenance treatment modalities in relation to incidence of HIV: results of the Amsterdam cohort study. AIDS, 13, 1711–1716.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C. A., Forman, V., Knowlton, A., Hoover, D., Hatcher, M., and Celentano, D. D. (2001). Injection Drug Users' Disclosure of HIV Seropositive Status to Network Members. AIDS and Behavior, 5, 297–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C. A., Forman-Hoffman, V. L., D'Souza, G., and Knowlton, A. R. (2004). Associations between medical service use and HIV risk among HIV-positive drug users in Baltimore, MD. AIDS Care, 16, 901–908.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Latkin, C. A., Sherman, S. G., and Knowlton, A. (2003). HIV prevention among drug users: Outcome of a network-oriented peer outreach intervention. Health Psychology, 22, 332–339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, J. T., Kim, J. H., Lau, M., and Tsui, H. Y. (2003). Prevalence and risk behaviors of Chinese men who seek same-sex partners via the internet in Hong Kong. AIDS Education and Prevention, 15, 516–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh, B. C. (2002). Alcohol and condom use: a meta-analysis of event-level studies. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 29, 476–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Loughlin, A., and Strathdee, S. A. (In Press). Hepatitis C infection among drug users enrolled in methadone maintenance program. The International Journal on Drug Policy.

  • Lucas, G. M., Cheever, L. W., Chaisson, R. E., and Moore, R. D. (2001). Detrimental effects of continued illicit drug use on the treatment of HIV-1 infection. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 27, 251–259.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, G. M., Weidle, P. J., Hader, S., Moore, R. D. (2004). Directly administered antiretroviral therapy in an urban methadone maintenance clinic: a nonrandomized comparative study. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 38, S409–S413.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lurie, P., Gorsky, R., Jones, T. S., and Shomphe, L. (1998). An economic analysis of needle exchange and pharmacy-based programs to increase sterile syringe availability for injection drug users. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 18, S126–S132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Macalino, G. E., Mitty, J. A., Bazerman, L. B., Singh, K., McKenzie, M., and Flanigan, T. (2004). Modified directly observed therapy for the treatment of HIV-seropositive substance users: lessons learned from a pilot study. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 38, S393–S397.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacGowan, R. J., Brackbill, R. M., Rugg, D. L., Swanson, N. M., Weinstein, B., Couchon, A., Scibak, J., Molde, S., McLaughlin, P., Barker, T., and Voigt, R. (1997). Sex, drugs and HIV counseling and testing: a prospective study of behavior-change among methadone-maintenance clients in New England. AIDS, 11, 229–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marmor, M., Friedman-Kien, A. E., Laubenstein, L., Byrum, R. D., William, D. C., D'Onofrio, S., and Dubin, N. (1982). Risk factors for Kaposi's sarcoma in homosexual men. Lancet, 15, 1083–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattison, A. M., Ross, M. W., Wolfson, T., Franklin, D., and the HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center Group (2001). Circuit party attendance, club drug use, and unsafe sex in gay men. Journal of Substance Abuse, 13, 119–26.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCance-Katz, E. F., Rainey, P. M., Friedland, G., and Jatlow, P. (2003). The protease inhibitor lopinavir-ritonavir may produce opiate withdrawal in methadone-maintained patients. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 37, 476–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCance-Katz, E. F., Rainey, P. M., Jatlow, P., and Friedland, G. (1998). Methadone effects on zidovudine disposition (AIDS Clinical Trials Group 262). Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 18, 435–43.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCusker, J., Stoddard, A. M., Hindin, R. N., Garfield, F. B., and Frost, R. (1996). Changes in HIV risk behavior following alternative residential programs of drug abuse treatment and AIDS education. Annals of Epidemiology, 6, 119–125.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, R. C., Malow, R. M., Jennings, T. E., and Gomez, C. J. (2001). Effects of a cognitive-behavioral HIV prevention intervention among HIV negative male substance abusers in VA residential treatment. AIDS Education and Prevention, 13, 91–107.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meandzija, B., O'Connor, P. G., Fitzgerald, B., Rounsaville, B. J., and Kosten, T. R. (1994). HIV infection and cocaine use in methadone maintained and untreated intravenous drug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 36, 109–13.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Metsch, L. R., McCoy, C. B., Lai, S., and Miles, C. (1998). Continuing risk behaviors among HIV-seropositive chronic drug users in Miami, Florida. AIDS and Behavior, 2, 161–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Metsch, L. R., Pereyra, M., and Brewer, T. H. (2001). Use of HIV health care in HIV-seropositive crack cocaine smokers and other active drug users. Journal of Substance Abuse, 13, 155–67.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Metzger, D. S., and Navaline, H. (2003). Human immunodeficiency virus prevention and the potential of drug abuse treatment. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 37, S451–S456.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Metzger, D. S., Woody, G. E., McLellan, A. T., O'Brien, C. P., Druley, P., Navaline, H., DePhilippis, D., Stolley, P., Abrutyn, E. (1993). Human immunodeficiency virus seroconversion among in- and out-of-treatment intravenous drug users: an 18-month prospective follow-up. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 6, 1049–1056.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • National Commission on AIDS. (1991). The twin epidemics of substance abuse and HIV. Washington, DC: National Commission on AIDS.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Consensus Development Panel on Effective Medical Treatment of Opiate Addiction. (1998). Effective medical treatment of opiate addiction. Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 1936–1943.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NIH Consensus Statement. (1997). Interventions to prevent HIV risk behaviors. 15, 1–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Normand, J., Vlahov, D., and Moses, L. E. (1995). Preventing HIV transmission: the role of sterile needles and bleach. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Office of the Surgeon General. (2000). Evidence-based findings on the efficacy of syringe exchange programs: an analysis from the Assistant Secretary for Health and Surgeon General of the scientific research completed since April 1998. Washington, DC: Office of the Surgeon General. http://www.harmreduction.org/surgreview.html.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ompad, D. C., Fuller, C. M., Vlahov, D., Thomas, D., and Strathdee, S. A. (2002). Lack of behavior change after disclosure of hepatitis C virus infection among young injection drug users in Baltimore, Maryland. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 35, 783–788.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrow, D. E., Fox, K. J., Chmiel, J. S., Silvestre, A., Visscher, B. R., Vanable, P. A., Jacobson, L. P., and Strathdee, S. A. (2002). Attitudes towards highly active antiretroviral therapy are associated with sexual risk taking among HIV-infected and uninfected homosexual men. AIDS, 16, 775–780.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palepu, A., Tyndall, M. W., Li, K., Yip, B., O'Shaughnessy, M. V., Schechter, M. T., Montaner, J. S., and Hogg, R. S. (2003). Alcohol Use and Incarceration Adversely Affect HIV-1 RNA Suppression Among Injection Drug Users Starting Antiretroviral Therapy. Journal of Urban Health, 80, 667–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, J. T., and Halkitis, P. N. (2002). Sexual and drug-using practices of HIV-positive men who frequent public and commercial sex environments. AIDS Care, 14, 815–26.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, J. T., Huszti, H. C., Crudder, S. O., Rich, L., and Mendoza, J. (2000). Maintenance of safer sexual behaviours: Evaluation of a theory-based intervention for HIV seropositive men with hemophilia and their female partners. Hemophilia, 6, 181–197.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, T. L., and Semple, S. J. (2002). Reducing the Sexual Risk Behaviors of HIV-positive Individuals: Outcome of a Randomized Controlled Trial. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 25.

  • Prendergast, M. L., Urada, D., and Podus, D. J. (2001). Meta-analysis of HIV risk-reduction interventions within drug abuse treatment programs. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 389–405.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Purcell, D. W., Metsch, L. R., Latka, M., Santibanez, S., and Gomez, C. A., Eldred, L., and Latkin, C. A. (2004). Interventions for seropositive injectors - Research and evaluation - An integrated behavioral intervention with HIV-positive injection drug users to address medical care, adherence, and risk reduction. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 37, S110–S118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, T., and Hartnoll, R. (1996). AIDS, Drugs, and Prevention: Perspectives on Individual and Community Action. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rippeth, J. D., Heaton, R. K., Carey, C. L., Marcotte, T. D., Moore, D. J., Gonzalez, R., Wolfson, T., Grant, I., and the HNRC group. (2004). Methamphetamine dependence increases risk of neuropsychological impairment in HIV infected persons. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 10, 1–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robles, R. R., Marrero, C. A., Reyes, J. C., Colon, H. M., Matos, T. D., Finlinson, H. A., Munoz, A., Melendez, M., and Sahai, H. (1998). Risk behaviors, HIV seropositivity, and tuberculosis infection in injecting drug users who operate shooting galleries in Puerto Rico. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 17, 477–83.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, M. W., Mattison, A. M., and Franklin, D. R. (2003). Club drugs and sex on drugs are associated with different motivations for gay circuit party attendance in men. Substance Use & Misuse, 38, 1173–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schechter, M. T., Strathdee, S. A., Cornelisse, P. G., Currie, S., Patrick, D. M., Rekart, M. L., and O'Shaughnessy, M. V. (1999). Do needle exchange programmes increase the spread of HIV among injection drug users?: An investigation of the Vancouver outbreak. AIDS, 13, F45–F51

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Semaan, S., Des Jarlais, D. C., Sogolow, E., Johnson, W. D., Hedges, L. V., Ramirez, G., Flores, S. A., Norman, L., Sweat, M. D., and Needle, R. (2002). A meta-analysis of the effect of HIV prevention interventions on the sex behaviors of drug users in the United States. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 30, S73–S93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Semple, S. J., Patterson, T. L., and Grant, I. (2003). Binge Use of Methamphetamine Among HIV-positive Men Who Have Sex With Men: Pilot Data And HIV Prevention Implications. AIDS Education and Prevention, 15, 133–147

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shah, N., Celentano, D. D., Vlahov, D., Stambolis, V., Johnson, L., Nelson, K. E., and Strathdee, S. A. (2000). Correlates of enrollment in methadone maintenance programs differ by HIV-serostatus. AIDS, 14, 2035–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stimson, G. V., and Choopanya, K. (1998). Global Perspectives on Drug Injecting. In G. V. Stimson, D. C. Des Jarlais, A. Ball (Eds.), Drug Injecting and HIV Infection: Global Dimensions and Local Responses (Social Aspects of AIDS) (pp.1–21). London: UCL Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strathdee, S. A., Celentano, D. D., Shah, N., Lyles, C., Macalino, G., Nelson, K., and Vlahov, D. (1999). Needle Exchange Attendance and Health Care Utilization Promote Entry into Detoxification. Journal of Urban Health, 76, 448–460.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strathdee, S. A., Galai, N., Safaiean, M., Celentano, D. D., Vlahov, D., Johnson, L., and Nelson, K. E. (2001). Sex differences in risk factors for HIV seroconversion among injection drug users: a 10-year perspective. Archives of Internal Medicine, 161, 1281–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strathdee, S. A., Palepu, A., Cornelisse, P. G. A., Yip, B., O'Shaughnessy, M. V., Montaner, J. S. T., Schechter, M. T., and Hogg, R. S. (1998). Barriers to utilization of antiretroviral therapies among HIV-infected injection drug users in a universal health care setting. Journal of American Medical Association, 280, 547–549.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strathdee, S. A., Patrick, D. M., Archibald, C. P., Ofner, M., Cornelisse, P. G. A., Rekart, M. L., Schechter, M. T., and O'Shaughnessy, M. V. (1997). Social determinants predict needle sharing behaviour among injection drug users in Vancouver, Canada. Addiction, 92, 1339–1347.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, S. M., Des Jarlais, D. C., Astone, J., and Vassilev, Z. P. (2003). On-site HIV testing in residential drug treatment units: results of a nationwide survey. Public Health Reports, 118, 37–43.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sylvestre, D. L. (2002). Treating hepatitis C in methadone maintenance patients: an interim analysis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 67, 117–123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sylvestre, D. L., Loftis, J. M., Hauser, P., Genser, S., Cesari, H., Borek, N., Kresina, T. F., Seeff, L., and Francis, H. (2004). Co-occurring Hepatitis C, substance use, and psychiatric illness: treatment issues and developing integrated models of care. Journal of Urban Health, 81, 719–34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. L., Astemborski, J., Rai, R. M., Anania, F. A., Schaeffer, M., Galai, N., Nolt, K., Nelson, K. E., Strathdee, S. A., Johnson, L., Laeyendecker, O., Boitnott, J., Wilson, L. E., and Vlahov, D. (2000). The natural history of Hepatitis C virus infection: host, viral, and environmental factors. Journal of American Medical Association, 284, 450–456.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tun, W., Celentano, D. D., Vlahov, D., and Strathdee, S. A. (2003). Attitudes toward HIV treatments influence unsafe sexual and injection practices among injecting drug users. AIDS, 17, 1953–1962.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tyndall, M. W., Currie, S., Spittal, P., Li, K., Wood, E., O'Shaughnessy, M. V., and Schechter, M. T. (2003). Intensive injection cocaine use as the primary risk factor in the Vancouver HIV-1 epidemic. AIDS, 17, 887–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. General Accounting Office. (1993). Needle exchange programs: research suggests promise as an AIDS prevention strategy. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. (Publication no. GAO/HRD 93-60).

    Google Scholar 

  • Valleroy, L. A., MacKellar, D. A., Karon, J. M., Rosen, D. H., McFarland, W., Shehan, D. A., Stoyanoff, S. R., LaLota, M., Celentano, D. D., Koblin, B. A., Thiede, H., Katz, M. H., Torian, L. V., and Janssen, R. S. (2000). HIV prevalence and associated risks in young men who have sex with men. Young Men's Survey Study Group. Journal of American Medical Association, 284, 198–204.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Ameijden, E. J., and Coutinho, R. A. (2001). Large decline in injecting drug use in Amsterdam, 1986–1998: explanatory mechanisms and determinants of injecting transitions. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55, 356–363

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Beek, I., Dwyer, R., Dore, G. J., Luo, K., and Kaldor, J. M. (1998). Infection with HIV and hepatitis C virus among injecting drug users in a prevention setting: retrospective cohort study. British Medical Journal, 317, 433–437.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Empelen, P., Kok, G., van Kesteren, N. M., van den Borne, B., Bos, A. E., and Schaalma, H. P. (2003). Effective methods to change sex-risk among drug users: a review of psychosocial interventions. Social Science & Medicine, 57, 1593–608.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vastag, B. (2001). Ecstasy experts want realistic messages. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286, 777.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vertefeuille, J., Marx, M. A., Tun, W., Huettner, S., Strathdee, S. A., and Vlahov, D. (2000). Decline in Self-Reported High Risk Injection-Related Behaviors Among HIV Seropositive Participants in the Baltimore Needle Exchange Program. AIDS and Behavior, 4, 381–388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vlahov, D., Junge, B., Brookmeyer, R., Cohn, S., Riley, E., Armenian, H., and Beilenson, P. (1997). Reductions in high-risk drug use behaviors among participants in the Baltimore needle exchange program. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome and Human Retrovirology, 16, 400–406.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Warner, B. D., and Leukefeld, C. G. (2001). Assessing the differential impact of an HIV prevention intervention: who's putting the message into practice? AIDS Education and Prevention, 13, 479–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weinhardt, L. S., Otto-Salaj, L. L., Brondino, M. J., Norberg, M. M., and Kalichman, S. C. (2002). Sex-related alcohol expectancies predict sexual risk behavior among severely and persistently mentally ill adults. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16, 64–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolitski, R. J., Gomez, C. A., and Parsons, J. T. (2005a). Effects of a peer-led behavioral intervention to reduce HIV transmission and promote serostatus disclosure among HIV-seropositive gay and bisexual men. AIDS, 19, Suppl 1, S99–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolitski, R. J., Parsons, J. T., Gomez, C. A. Purcell, D. W., Hoff, C. C., and Halkitis, P. N. (2005b). Prevention with gay and bisexual men living with HIV: rationale and methods of the Seropositive Urban Men's Intervention Trial (SUMIT). AIDS, 19 Suppl 1, S1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woody, G. E., Donnell, D., Seage, G. R., Metzger, D., Marmor, M., Koblin, B. A., Buchbinder, S., Gross, M., Stone, B., and Judson, F. N. (1999). Non-injection substance use correlates with risky sex among men having sex with men: data from HIVNET. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 53, 197–205.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Dr. Strathdee acknowledges grant support from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA09225 and DA14499), as well as the Harold Simon Chair Foundation. Dr. Patterson acknowledges grant support from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA012116) and the National Institute on Mental Health (MH061146).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of International Health and Cross Cultural Medicine, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, University of California, San Diego, USA

    Steffanie A. Strathdee

  2. Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, USA

    Thomas L. Patterson

Authors
  1. Steffanie A. Strathdee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Thomas L. Patterson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Thomas L. Patterson.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Strathdee, S.A., Patterson, T.L. Behavioral Interventions for HIV-Positive and HCV-Positive Drug users. AIDS Behav 10, 115–130 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-005-9055-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-005-9055-5

KEY WORDS:

Search

Navigation