Abstract
For many years the evolution of language has been seen as a disreputable topic, mired in fanciful “just so stories” about language origins. However, in the last decade a new synthesis of modern linguistics, cognitive neuroscience and neo-Darwinian evolutionary theory has begun to make important contributions to our understanding of the biology and evolution of language. I review some of this recent progress, focusing on the value of the comparative method, which uses data from animal species to draw inferences about language evolution. Discussing speech first, I show how data concerning a wide variety of species, from monkeys to birds, can increase our understanding of the anatomical and neural mechanisms underlying human spoken language, and how bird and whale song provide insights into the ultimate evolutionary function of language. I discuss the “descended larynx” of humans, a peculiar adaptation for speech that has received much attention in the past, which despite earlier claims is not uniquely human. Then I will turn to the neural mechanisms underlying spoken language, pointing out the difficulties animals apparently experience in perceiving hierarchical structure in sounds, and stressing the importance of vocal imitation in the evolution of a spoken language. Turning to ultimate function, I suggest that communication among kin (especially between parents and offspring) played a crucial but neglected role in driving language evolution. Finally, I briefly discuss phylogeny, discussing hypotheses that offer plausible routes to human language from a non-linguistic chimp-like ancestor. I conclude that comparative data from living animals will be key to developing a richer, more interdisciplinary understanding of our most distinctively human trait: language.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
M.A. Arbib (2003) The evolving mirror system: a neural basis for language readiness M. Christiansen S. Kirby (Eds) Language Evolution Oxford University Press Oxford 182–200
M.A. Arbib (2005) ArticleTitleFrom monkey-like action recognition to human language: an evolutionary framework for neurolinguistics Behav. Brain Sci 28 105–167 Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0140525X05000038 Occurrence Handle16201457
J. Batali (1994) Innate biases and critical periods: combining evolution and learning the acquisition of syntax R. Brooks P. Maes (Eds) Artificial Life IV MIT Press Cambridge MA 160–171
J. Batali (1998) Computer simulations of the emergence of grammar J.R. Hurford M. Studdert-Kennedy C. Knight (Eds) Approaches to the Evolution of Language Cambridge University Press New York 405–426
E. Bates J. Elman (1996) ArticleTitleLearning Rediscovered Science 274 1849–1850 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.274.5294.1849 Occurrence Handle8984644
E. Belton C.H. Salmond K.E. Watkins F. Vargha-Khadem D.G. Gadian (2003) ArticleTitleBilateral brain abnormalities associated with dominantly inherited verbal and orofacial dyspraxia Hum. Brain Mappin 18 194–200 Occurrence Handle10.1002/hbm.10093
T.J. Bergman J.C. Beehner D.L. Cheney R.M. Seyfarth (2003) ArticleTitleHierarchical classification by rank and kinship in baboons Science 302 1234–1236 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.1087513 Occurrence Handle14615544
C.T. Bergstrom M. Lachmann (1998) ArticleTitleSignalling among relatives. III Talk is Cheap Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 95 5100–5105 Occurrence Handle10.1073/pnas.95.9.5100 Occurrence Handle9560235
D. Bickerton (1990) Language and Species Chicago University Press Chicago IL
D. Bickerton (1998) Catastrophic evolution: the case for a single step from protolanguage to full human language J.R. Hurford M. Studdert-Kennedy C. Knight (Eds) Approaches to the Evolution of Language Cambridge University Press New York 341–358
D. Bickerton (2000) How protolanguage became language C. Knight (Eds) The Evolutionary Emergence of Language: Social Function and the Origins of Linguistic Form Cambridge University Press Cambridge 264–284
D. Bickerton (2003) Symbol and structure: a comprehensive framework for language evolution M. Christiansen S. Kirby (Eds) Language Evolution Oxford University Press Oxford 77–94
T. Briscoe (2002) Evolution through Language Acquisition: Formal and Computational Models Cambridge University Press Cambridge 358
T. Briscoe (2003) Grammatical assimilation M. Christiansen S. Kirby (Eds) Language Evolution Oxford University Press Oxford 295–316
S. Brown (2000) The ‘Musilanguage’ model of music evolution N.L. Wallin B. Merker S. Brown (Eds) The Origins of Music The MIT Press CambridgeMass 271–300
M. Brunet F. Guy D. Pilbeam D.E. Lieberman A. Likius M.P.D. Leon C. Zollikofer P. Vignaud (2005) ArticleTitleNew material of the earliest hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad Nature 434 752–755 Occurrence Handle10.1038/nature03392 Occurrence Handle15815627
R. Burling (1986) ArticleTitleThe selective advantage of complex language Ethol. Sociobiol. 7 1–16 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0162-3095(86)90011-7
R.W. Byrne A. Whiten (1988) Machiavellian Intelligence: Social Expertise and the Evolution of Intellect in Monkeys, Apes and Humans Clarendon Press Oxford
R. Cabeza L. Nyberg (2000) ArticleTitleImaging cognition II: an empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies J. Cogn. Neurosci. 12 1–47 Occurrence Handle10.1162/08989290051137585
W.H. Calvin D. Bickerton (2000) Lingua Ex Machina: Reconciling Darwin with the Human Brain MIT Press Cambridge, Mass
A. Cangelosi D. Parisi (2002) Simulating the Evolution of Language Springer New York
A. Carstairs-McCarthy (1998) Synonymy avoidancephonology and the origin of syntax J.R. Hurford M. Studdert-Kennedy C. Knight (Eds) Approaches to the Evolution of Language Cambridge University Press New York 279–296
A. Carstairs-McCarthy (1999) The Origins of Complex Language Oxford University Press Oxford
C.K. Catchpole P.L.B. Slater (1995) Bird Song: Themes and Variations Cambridge University Press New York
D.L. Cheney R.M. Seyfarth (1990a) ArticleTitleAttending to behaviour versus attending to knowledge: examining monkeys' attribution of mental states Anim. Behav. 40 742–753
D.L. Cheney R.M. Seyfarth (1990b) How Monkeys See the World: Inside the Mind of Another Species Chicago University Press Chicago IL
N. Chomsky (1957) Syntactic Structures The Hague Mouton
M. Christiansen S. Kirby (2003) Language Evolution Oxford University Press Oxford
M.T. Colonnese E.L. Stallman K.C. Berridge (1996) ArticleTitleOntogeny of action syntax in altricial and precocial rodents: grooming sequences by rat and guinea pig pups Behaviour 133 1165–1195
M.C. Corballis (2003) From hand to mouth: the gestural origins of language M. Christiansen S. Kirby (Eds) Language Evolution Oxford University Press Oxford 201–218
S. Crain (1991) ArticleTitleLanguage acquisition in the absence of experience Behav. Brain Sci. 14 597–650
M.R. D'Amato (1988) ArticleTitleA search for tonal pattern perception in cebus monkey: why monkeys can't hum a tune Music Percep. 5 452–480
C. Darwin (1871) The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex John Murray London
R. Dawkins J.R. Krebs (1978) Animal signals: information or manipulation? J.R. Krebs N.B. Davies (Eds) Behavioural Ecology Blackwell Scientific Publications Oxford England 282–309
B. de Boer (2001) The Origins of Vowel Systems Oxford University Press Oxford
T.W. Deacon (1997) The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain Norton New York
A.J. DeCasper W.P. Fifer (1980) ArticleTitleOf Human bonding: newborn's prefer their mothers' voices Science 208 1174–1176 Occurrence Handle7375928
D.C. Dennett (1995) Darwin's Dangerous Idea Simon & Schuster New York
J.-L. Dessalles (1998) Altruism status and the origin of relevance J.R. Hurford M. Studdert-Kennedy M. Knight (Eds) Approaches to the Evolution of Language Cambridge University Press New York 130–147
G. di Pellegrino L. Fadiga L. Fogassi V. Gallese G. Rizzolatti (1992) ArticleTitleUnderstanding motor events: a neurophysiological study Exp. Brain Res. 91 176–180 Occurrence Handle1301372
M. Donald (1991) Origins of the Modern Mind Harvard University Press Cambridge Massachusetts
A.J. Doupe P.K. Kuhl (1999) ArticleTitleBirdsong and human speech: common themes and mechanisms Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 22 567–631 Occurrence Handle10.1146/annurev.neuro.22.1.567 Occurrence Handle10202549
R. Dunbar (1996) Grooming, Gossip and the Evolution of Language Harvard University Press Cambridge MA
K. Emmorey (2002) languageCognition and the Brain: Insights From Sign Language Research Lawrence Erlbaum London
W. Enard M. Przeworski S.E. Fisher C.S.L. Lai V. Wiebe T. Kitano A.P. Monaco S. Paäbo (2002) ArticleTitleMolecular evolution of FOXP2, a gene involved in speech and language Nature 418 869–872 Occurrence Handle10.1038/nature01025 Occurrence Handle12192408
C.S. Evans L. Evans P. Marler (1994) ArticleTitleOn the meaning of alarm calls: functional reference in an avian vocal system Anim. Behav. 46 23–38 Occurrence Handle10.1006/anbe.1993.1158
C.S. Evans P. Marler (1994) ArticleTitleFood-calling and audience effects in male chickens,Gallus gallus: their relationships to food availability, courtship and social facilitation Anim. Behav. 47 1159–1170 Occurrence Handle10.1006/anbe.1994.1154
P.D. Evans J.R. Anderson E.J. Vallender S.L. Gilbert C.M. Malcom S. Dorus B.T. Lahn (2004) ArticleTitleAdaptive evolution of ASPM, a major determinant of cerebral cortical size in humans Hum. Mol. Genet. 13 489–494 Occurrence Handle10.1093/hmg/ddh055 Occurrence Handle14722158
L. Fadiga L. Craighero G. Buccino G. Rizzolatti (2002) ArticleTitleSpeech listening specifically modulates the excitability of tongue muscles: a TMS study Eur. J. Neurosci. 15 399–402 Occurrence Handle10.1046/j.0953-816x.2001.01874.x Occurrence Handle11849307
C.F. Ferris C.T. Snowdon J.A. King T.Q. Duong T.E. Ziegler K. Ugurbil R. Ludwig N.J. Schultz-Darken Z. Wu P. David J.M.S. Olson SuffixJr. P.L. Tannenbaum J.T. Vaughan (2001) ArticleTitleFunctional imaging of brain activity in conscious monkeys responding to sexually arousing cues NeuroReport 12 2231–2236 Occurrence Handle10.1097/00001756-200107200-00037 Occurrence Handle11447340
J. Fischer K. Hammerschmidt (2002) ArticleTitleAn overview of the Barbary macaqueMacaca sylvanusvocal repertoire Folia Primatol. 73 32–45 Occurrence Handle10.1159/000060417 Occurrence Handle12065939
R.A. Fisher (1930) The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection Clarendon Press Oxford UK
W.T. Fitch (1997) ArticleTitletract length and formant frequency dispersion correlate with body size in rhesus macaques J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 102 1213–1222 Occurrence Handle10.1121/1.421048 Occurrence Handle9265764
W.T. Fitch (2000a) ArticleTitleThe evolution of speech: a comparative review Trends Cogn. Sci. 4 258–267 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01494-7
W.T. Fitch (2000b) ArticleTitleThe phonetic potential of nonhuman vocal tracts: comparative cineradiographic observations of vocalizing animals Phonetica 57 205–218 Occurrence Handle10.1159/000028474
W.T. Fitch (2002) Comparative vocal production and the evolution of speech: reinterpreting the descent of the larynx A. Wray (Eds) The Transition to Language Oxford University Press Oxford 21–45
W.T. Fitch (2004) Kin selection and ‘Mother Tongues’: a neglected component in language evolution D.K. Oller U. Griebel (Eds) Evolution of Communication Systems: A Comparative Approach MIT Press Massachusetts, Cambridge 275–296
Fitch W.T. The biology and evolution of music. Cognition. in press.
W.T. Fitch J. Giedd (1999) ArticleTitleMorphology and development of the human vocal tract: a study using magnetic resonance imaging J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 106 1511–1522 Occurrence Handle10.1121/1.427148 Occurrence Handle10489707
W.T. Fitch M.D. Hauser (2002) Unpacking ‘Honesty’: vertebrate vocal production and the evolution of acoustic signals A.M. Simmons R.F. Fay A.N. Popper (Eds) Acoustic Communication Springer New York 65–137
W.T. Fitch M.D. Hauser (2004) ArticleTitleComputational constraints on syntactic processing in a nonhuman primate Science 303 377–380 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.1089401 Occurrence Handle14726592
Fitch W.T., Hauser M.D. and Chomsky N. The Evolution of the Language Faculty: Clarifications and Implications. Cognition. in press.
W.T. Fitch D. Reby (2001) ArticleTitleThe descended larynx is not uniquely human Proc. R. Soc. Biol. Sci. 268 1669–1675 Occurrence Handle10.1098/rspb.2001.1704
S.A. Frank (1998) Foundations of Social Evolution Princeton University Press Princeton
A. Friederici M. Meyer D.Y. von Cramon (2000) ArticleTitleAuditory language comprehension: an event-related fMRI study on the processing of syntactic and lexical information Brain Lang. 74 289–300 Occurrence Handle10.1006/brln.2000.2313 Occurrence Handle10950920
R.A. Gardner B.T. Gardner (1969) ArticleTitleTeaching sign language to a chimpanzee Science 165 664–672 Occurrence Handle5793972
R. Gil-da-Costa A. Braun M. Lopes M.D. Hauser R.E. Carson P. Herscovitch A. Martin (2004) ArticleTitleToward an evolutionary perspective on conceptual representation: species-specific calls activate visual and affective processing systems in the macaque Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 101 17516–17521 Occurrence Handle10.1073/pnas.0408077101 Occurrence Handle15583132
B.C. Goodwin L.E.H. Trainor (1983) The ontogeny and phylogeny of the pendactyl limb B.C. Goodwin N. Holder C.C. Wylie (Eds) Development and Evolution : The Sixth Symposium of the British Society for Developmental Biology Cambridge University Press Cambridge 75–98
M. Gopnik (1990) ArticleTitleFeature-blind grammar and dysphasia Nature 344 715 Occurrence Handle10.1038/344715a0
S.J. Gould (1976) In defense of the analog: a commentary to N. Hotton R.B. Masterton W. Hodos H. Jerison (Eds) Evolution Brain and Behavior: Persistent Problems John Wiley & Sons New York 175–179
S.J. Gould (1991) ArticleTitleExaptation: a crucial tool for evolutionary psychology J. Soc. Issues 47 43–65
Gould S.J. and Lewontin R.C. 1979. The spandrels of San Marco and the panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B205: 581–598.
S.J. Gould E.S. Vrba (1982) ArticleTitleExaptation – a missing term in the science of form Paleobiology 8 4–15
A. Grafen (1990) ArticleTitleBiological signals as handicaps J. Theor. Biol. 144 517–546 Occurrence Handle2402153
B.K. Hall (1994) Homology: The Hierarchical Basis of Comparative Biology Academic Press San Diego 483
W.D. Hamilton (1964) ArticleTitleevolution of altruistic behavior Am. Natural. 97 354–356 Occurrence Handle10.1086/497114
M. Hauser N. Chomsky W.T. Fitch (2002a) ArticleTitleThe language faculty: what is itwho has itand how did it evolve? Science 298 1569–1579 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.298.5598.1569
M.D. Hauser (1996) The Evolution of Communication MIT Press Cambridge MA
M.D. Hauser (2001) What's so special about speech? E. Dupoux (Eds) Honor of Jacques Mehler MIT Press Cambridge Massachusetts 417–434
M.D. Hauser P. Marler (1993) ArticleTitleFood-associated calls in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). I. Socioecological factors influencing call production Behav. Ecol. 4 194–205
M.D. Hauser E.L. Newport R.N. Aslin (2001) ArticleTitleSegmentation of the speech stream in a nonhuman primate: statistical learning in cotton-top tamarins Cognition 78 53–64 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00132-3
M.D. Hauser P. Teixidor L. Field R. Flaherty (1993) ArticleTitleFood-elicited calls in chimpanzees: effects of food quantity and divisibility? Anim. Behav. 45 817–819 Occurrence Handle10.1006/anbe.1993.1096
M.D. Hauser D. Weiss G. Marcus (2002b) ArticleTitleRule learning by cotton-top tamarins Cognition 86 B15–B22 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0010-0277(02)00139-7
C. Henton (1992) The abnormality of male speech G. Wolf (Eds) Linguistics Garland Publishing New York 27–59
L.M. Herman A.A. Pack M.-S. Palmer (1993) Representational and conceptual skills of dolphins H.L. Roitblat L.M. Herman P.E Nachtigall (Eds) Language and Communication: Comparative Perspectives Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hillsdale NJ 403–442
G.W. Hewes (1973) ArticleTitlePrimate communication and the gestural origin of language Curr. Anthropol. 14 5–24 Occurrence Handle10.1086/201401
C.F. Hockett (1960) Logical considerations in the study of animal communication W.E. Lanyon W.N. Tavolga (Eds) Animal Sounds and Communication American Institute of Biological Sciences Washington, D.C
J. Hurford (1990) Nativist and functional explanations in language acquisition I.M. Roca (Eds) Logical Issues in Language Acquistion Foris Publications Dordrecht 85–136
J.R. Hurford (2000) The emergence of syntax C. Knight M. Studdert-Kennedy J.R. Hurford (Eds) The Evolutionary Emergence of Language: Social Function and the Origins of Linguistic Form Cambridge University Press Cambridge 219–230
J.S. Hyde M.C. Linn (1988) ArticleTitleGender differences in verbal ability: a meta-analysis Psychol. Bull. 104 53–69 Occurrence Handle10.1037/0033-2909.104.1.53
R. Jackendoff (1999) ArticleTitlePossible stages in the evolution of the language capacity Trends Cogn. Sci. 3 272–279 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01333-9 Occurrence Handle10377542
R. Jackendoff (2002) Foundations of Language Oxford University Press New York
F. Jacob (1977) ArticleTitleEvolution and tinkering Science 196 1161–1166 Occurrence Handle860134
V.M. Janik P.B. Slater (1997) ArticleTitleVocal learning in mammals Adv. study Behav. 26 59–99
L. Jenkins (1999) Biolinguistics: Exploring the Biology of Language Cambridge University Press New York
R.A. Johnstone A. Grafen (1992) ArticleTitleThe continuous Sir Philip Sidney game: a simple model of biological signalling J. Theor. Biol. 156 215–234 Occurrence Handle1640723
U. Jurgens (1998) ArticleTitleNeuronal control of mammalian vocalization, with special reference to the squirrel monkey Naturwissenschaften 85 376–388 Occurrence Handle10.1007/s001140050519 Occurrence Handle9762689
P.W. Jusczyk (1997) The Discovery of Spoken Language MIT Press Cambridge MA
E. Kako (1999) ArticleTitleElements of syntax in the systems of three language-trained animals Anim. Learn. Behav. 27 1–14
J. Kaminski J. Call J. Fischer (2004) ArticleTitleWord learning in a domestic dog: evidence for ‘fast mapping’ Science 304 1682–1683 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.1097859 Occurrence Handle15192233
S.J. Karakashian M. Gyger P. Marler (1988) ArticleTitleAudience effects on alarm calling in chickens (Gallus gallus) J. Comp. Psychol. 102 129–135 Occurrence Handle10.1037/0735-7036.102.2.129 Occurrence Handle3396311
R. Keller (1995) On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language Routledge New York
S. Kirby (1998) Function, Selection and Innateness: The Emergence of Language Universals Oxford University Press Oxford
S. Kirby (2002) ArticleTitleNatural language from artifical life Artif. Life 8 185–215 Occurrence Handle10.1162/106454602320184248 Occurrence Handle12171637
S. Kirby K. Smith H. Brighton (2004) ArticleTitleFrom UG to universals: linguistic adaptation through iterated learning Studies in Language 28 IssueID3 1–17
E.S. Klima U. Bellugi (1979) The Signs of Language Harvard University Press Cambridge MA
K.R. Kluender A.J. Lotto L.L. Holt S.L. Bloedel (1998) ArticleTitleRole of experience for language-specific functional mappings of vowel sounds J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 104 3568–3582 Occurrence Handle10.1121/1.423939 Occurrence Handle9857515
E. Kohler C. Keysers M.A. Umiltà L. Fogassi V. Gallese G. Rizzolatti (2002) ArticleTitleHearing sounds, understanding actions: action representation in mirror neurons Science 297 846–849 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.1070311 Occurrence Handle12161656
N.L. Komarova M.A. Nowak (2003) Language, learning and evolution M. Christiansen S. Kirby (Eds) Language Evolution Oxford Unviersity Press Oxford 317–337
P. Kuhl (1989) On babies, birds, modules, and mechanisms: a comparative approach to the acquisition of vocal communication R.J. Dooling S.H. Hulse (Eds) The Comparative Psychology of Audition Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hillsdale NJ 379–422
P. Kuhl J.D. Miller (1978) ArticleTitleSpeech perception by the chinchilla: identification functions for synthetic VOT stimuli J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 63 905–917 Occurrence Handle10.1121/1.381770 Occurrence Handle670558
P.K. Kuhl (1987) The special-mechanisms debate in speech research: categorization tests on animals and infants S. Harnad (Eds) Categorical Perception: The Groundwork of Cognition Cambridge University Press N.Y
C.S.L. Lai S.E. Fisher J.A. Hurst F. Vargha-Khadem A.P. Monaco (2001) ArticleTitleA forkhead-domain gene is mutated in a severe speech and language disorder Nature 413 519–523 Occurrence Handle10.1038/35097076 Occurrence Handle11586359
N.E. Langmore (1998) ArticleTitleFunctions of duet and solo songs of female birds Trends Ecol. Evol. 13 136–140 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01241-X
A.M. Liberman (1996) Speech: A Special Code MIT Press Cambridge Mass
A.M. Liberman K.S. Harris H.S. Hoffman B.C. Griffith (1957) ArticleTitleThe discrimination of speech sounds within and across phoneme boundaries J. Exp. Psychol. 53 358–368
A.M. Liberman G. Mattingly I (1985) ArticleTitleThe motor theory of speech perception revised Cognition 21 1–36 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0010-0277(85)90021-6 Occurrence Handle4075760
P. Lieberman (1968) ArticleTitlePrimate vocalization and human linguistic ability J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 44 1574–1584 Occurrence Handle10.1121/1.1911299 Occurrence Handle5702032
P. Lieberman (1984) The Biology and Evolution of Language Harvard University Press Cambridge MA
P. Lieberman (2000) Human language and our reptilian brain: the subcortical bases of speechsyntax and thought Harvard University Press Cambridge MA
P. Lieberman S.E. Blumstein (1988) Speech Physiology, Speech Perception, and Acoustic Phonetics Cambridge University Press CambridgeUK
F. Liégeois T. Baldeweg A. Connelly D.G. Gadian M. Mishkin F. Vargha-Khadem (2003) ArticleTitleLanguage fMRI abnormalities associated with FOXP2 gene mutation Nat. Neurosci. 6 1230–1237 Occurrence Handle10.1038/nn1138 Occurrence Handle14555953
K. Liem (1973) ArticleTitleEvolutionary strategies and morphological innovations: cichlid pharyngeal jaws Syst. Zool. 22 425–441
D. Lightfoot (1991) ArticleTitleSubjacency and sex Lang. Commun. 11 67–69 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0271-5309(91)90020-V
D.W. Lightfoot (2002) Syntactic Effects of Morphological Change Oxford Oxford Linguistics 422
J. Locke (1993) The Path to Spoken Language Harvard University Press Cambridge MA
Locke J.L. and Bogin B. (in press). Language and life history: A new perspective on the development and evolution of human language. Behavioral & Brain Sciences.
N.K. Logothetis J. Pauls M. Augath T. Trinath A. Oltermann (2001) ArticleTitleNeurophysiological investigation of the basis of the fMRI signal Nature 412 150–157 Occurrence Handle10.1038/35084005 Occurrence Handle11449264
P.F. MacNeilage (1998a) Evolution of the mechanisms of language output: comparative neurobiology of vocal and manual communication J.R. Hurford M. Studdert-Kennedy C. Knight (Eds) Approaches to the Evolution of Language Cambridge University Press New York 222–241
P.F. MacNeilage (1998b) ArticleTitleThe frame/content theory of evolution of speech production Behav. Brain Sci. 21 499–546 Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0140525X98001265
G.F. Marcus S.E. Fisher (2003) ArticleTitleFOXP2 in focus: what can genes tell us about speech and language? Trends Cogn. Sci. 7 257–262 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00104-9 Occurrence Handle12804692
P. Marler (1970a) ArticleTitleBirdsong and speech development: could there be parallels? Am. Sci. 58 669–673
P. Marler (1970b) ArticleTitleA comparative approach to vocal learning: song development in white-crowned sparrows J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. Monogr. 71 1–25
J. Maynard Smith (1991) ArticleTitleHonest signalling: the Philip Sydney game Anim. Behav. 42 1034–1035
J. Maynard Smith (1998) ArticleTitleThe origin of altruism Nature 393 639–640 Occurrence Handle10.1038/31383
J. Maynard Smith R. Burian S. Kauffman P. Alberch J. Campbell B. Goodwin R. Lande D. Raup L. Wolpert (1985) ArticleTitleDevelopmental constraints and evolution Q. Rev. Biol. 60 265–287 Occurrence Handle10.1086/414425
J. Maynard Smith D. Harper (2003) Animal Signals Oxford University Press Oxford
J. Maynard Smith E. Szathmáry (1995) The Major Transitions in Evolution Oxford University Press New York
J. Mehler P. Jusczyk G. Lambertz N. Halsted J. Bertoncini C. Amiel-Tison (1998) ArticleTitleA precursor of language acquisition in young infants Cognition 29 143–178 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0010-0277(88)90035-2
G.F. Miller (2001) The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature Doubleday New York
B.R. Moore (1992) ArticleTitleAvian movement imitation and a new form of mimicry: tracing the evolution of a complex form of learning Behaviour 12 231–263
D. Nettle R. Dunbar (1997) ArticleTitleSocial markers and the evolution of reciprocal exchange Curr. Anthropol. 38 93–99 Occurrence Handle10.1086/204588
F. Nottebohm (1976) ArticleTitleVocal tract and brain: a search for evolutionary bottlenecks Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 280 643–649 Occurrence Handle827956
F. Nottebohm (1999) The anatomy and timing of vocal learning in birds M.D. Hauser M. Konishi (Eds) The design of animal communication MIT/Bradford Cambridge MA 63–110
M. Nowak N.L. Komarova P. Niyogi (2001) ArticleTitleEvolution of universal grammar Science 291 114–118 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.291.5501.114 Occurrence Handle11141560
M. Nowak N.L. Komarova P. Niyogi (2002) ArticleTitleComputational and evolutionary aspects of language Nature 417 611–617 Occurrence Handle10.1038/nature00771 Occurrence Handle12050656
J.J. Ohala (1983) ArticleTitleCross-language use of pitch: an ethological view Phonetica 40 1–18 Occurrence Handle6189135
P.-Y. Oudeyer (2003) L'auto-organisation de la parole University Paris VI Paris
M.J. Owren J.A. Dieter R.M. Seyfarth D.L. Cheney (1993) ArticleTitleVocalizations of rhesus (Macaca mulatta) and Japanese (M. fuscata) macaques cross-fostered between species show evidence of only limited modification Dev. Psychobiol. 26 389–406 Occurrence Handle10.1002/dev.420260703 Occurrence Handle8270122
K. Payne (2000) The progressively changing songs of humpback whales: a window on the creative process in a wild animal N.L. Wallin B. Merker S. Brown (Eds) The Origins of Music The MIT Press Cambridge, Mass 135–150
I.M. Pepperberg (1991) A communicative approach to animal cognition: a study of conceptual abilities of an African grey parrot C.A. Ristau (Eds) Cognitive Ethology Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers Hillsdale N.J. 153–186
S. Pinker (1984) Language Learnability and Language Development Harvard University Press Cambridge Mass
S. Pinker (1994) The Language Instinct William Morrow and Company, Inc New York, NY
S. Pinker P. Bloom (1990) ArticleTitleNatural language and natural selection Behav. Brain Sci. 13 707–784
S. Pinker R. Jackendoff (2005) ArticleTitleThe faculty of language: what's special about it? Cognition 95 IssueID2 201–236 Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.cognition.2004.08.004 Occurrence Handle15694646
D.J. Povinelli T.J. Eddy (1996) ArticleTitleWhat young chimpanzees know about seeing Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 61 1–151
G.R. Price (1970) ArticleTitleSelection and covariance Nature (London) 227 520–521 Occurrence Handle10.1038/227520a0
G.R. Price (1972) ArticleTitleExtension of covariance selection mathematics Ann. Hum. Genet. 35 485–490 Occurrence Handle5073694
F. Ramus M.D. Hauser C.T. Miller D. Morris J. Mehler (2000) ArticleTitleLanguage discrimination by human newborns and cotton-top tamarin monkeys Science 288 349–351 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.288.5464.349 Occurrence Handle10764650
D. Reby K. McComb (2003) ArticleTitleAnatomical constraints generate honesty: acoustic cues to age and weight in the roars of red deer stags Anim. Behav. 65 519–530 Occurrence Handle10.1006/anbe.2003.2078
D. Reby K. McComb B Cargnelutti C. Darwin W.T. Fitch T. Clutton-Brock (2005) ArticleTitleRed deer stags use formants as assessment cues during intrasexual agonistic interactions Proc. R. Soc. Lond B 272 IssueID1566 941–947 Occurrence Handle10.1098/rspb.2004.2954
D.G. Richards J.P. Wolz L.M. Herman (1984) ArticleTitleVocal mimicry of computer-generated sounds and vocal labeling of objects by a bottlenosed dolphin, Tursiops truncatus J. Comp. Psychol. 98 10–28 Occurrence Handle10.1037//0735-7036.98.1.10 Occurrence Handle6705501
K. Riebel (2003) ArticleTitleThe ‘mute’ sex revisited: vocal production and perception learning in female songbirds Adv. Study Behav 33 49–86
G. Rizzolatti M.A. Arbib (1998) ArticleTitleLanguage within our grasp Trends Neurosci. 21 188–194 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0166-2236(98)01260-0 Occurrence Handle9610880
G. Sampson (1980) Schools of Linguistics Stanford University Press Stanford CA
M.J. Sanderson L. Hufford (1996) Homoplasy: The Recurrence of Similarity in Evolution Academic Press San Diego
E.S. Savage-Rumbaugh J. Murphy R.A. Sevcik K.E. Brakke S.L. Williams D.M. Rumbaugh (1993) ArticleTitleLanguage comprehension in ape and child Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 58 1–221
Scott S.K. 2005. The neurobiology of speech. In: Cutler A. Crossroads of Psycholinguistics: Four Comerstones, Lawrence ErlbaumLondon, pp. 141–156.
A. Senghas M. Coppola (2001) ArticleTitleChildren creating language: how Nicaraguan sign language acquired a spatial grammar Psychol. Sci. 12 323–328 Occurrence Handle10.1111/1467-9280.00359 Occurrence Handle11476100
A. Senghas S. Kita A. Özyürek (2005) ArticleTitleChildren Creating Core Properties of Language: Evidence from an Emerging Sign Language in Nicaragua Science 305 1779–1782 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.1100199
Seyfarth R.M. and Cheney D. Constraints and preadaptations in the earliest stages of language evolution. Ling. Rev.. in press.
R.M. Seyfarth D.L. Cheney (1990) ArticleTitleThe assessment by vervet monkeys of their own and another species' alarm calls Anim. Behav. 40 754–764
R.M. Seyfarth D.L. Cheney T.J. Bergman (2005) ArticleTitlePrimate social cognition and the origins of language Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9 IssueID6 264–266 Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.tics.2005.04.001
J. Sinnott T.L. Williamson (1999) ArticleTitleCan macaques perceive place of articulation from formant transition information J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 106 929–937 Occurrence Handle10.1121/1.427107 Occurrence Handle10462798
E. Sober D.S. Wilson (1998) Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior Harvard University Press Cambridge MA
L. Steels (1997) ArticleTitleThe synthetic modeling of language origins Evol. Commun. 1 1–34
L. Steels (1998) Synthesizing the origins of language and meaning using coevolution, self-organization and level formation J.R. Hurford M. Studdert-Kennedy C. Knight (Eds) Approaches to the Evolution of Language Cambridge University Press New York 384–404
L. Steel (1999) The Talking Heads Experiment Antwerpen Laboratorium
J.R. Stevens M.D. Hauser (2004) ArticleTitleWhy be nice? Psychological constraints on the evolution of cooperation Trends Cogn. Sci. 8 60–65 Occurrence Handle10.1016/j.tics.2003.12.003 Occurrence Handle15588809
K. Stromswold (2001) ArticleTitleThe heritability of language: a review and metaanalyis of twin, adoption, and linkage studies Language 77 647–723
M. Studdert-Kennedy (1983) ArticleTitleOn learning to speak Hum. Neurobiol. 2 191–195 Occurrence Handle6668235
F. Subiaul J. Cantlon R. Holloway H.S. Terrace (2004) ArticleTitleCognitive imitation in rhesus macaques Science 305 407–410 Occurrence Handle10.1126/science.1099136 Occurrence Handle15256673
H.M. Sussman D. Fruchter J. Hilbert J. Sirosh (1998) ArticleTitleLinear correlates in the speech signal: the orderly output constraint Behav. Brain Sci. 21 241–299 Occurrence Handle10.1017/S0140525X98001174 Occurrence Handle10097014
E. Szathmáry (2001) Origin of the human language faculty: the language amoeba hypothesis J. Trabant S. Ward (Eds) New Essays on the Origin of Language Mouton de Gruyter Berlin 55–81
H.S. Terrace L.K. Son E.M. Brannon (2003) ArticleTitleSerial expertise of rhesus macaques Psychol. Sci. 14 66–73 Occurrence Handle10.1111/1467-9280.01420 Occurrence Handle12564756
N. Tinbergen (1963) ArticleTitleOn aims and methods of ethology Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie 20 410–33
M. Tomasello (2002) ArticleTitleNot waving but speaking: how important were gestures in the evolution of language? Nature 417 791–792 Occurrence Handle10.1038/417791a
M. Tomasello (2003) On the different origins of symbols and grammar M. Christiansen S. Kirby (Eds) Language Evolution Oxford University Press Oxford 94–110
M. Tomasello J. Call (1997) Primate Cognition Oxford University Press Oxford
M. Tomasello J. Call B. Hare (2003) ArticleTitleChimpanzees understand psychological states – the question is which ones and to what extent Trends Cogn. Sci. 7 153–156 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00035-4 Occurrence Handle12691762
R.L. Trivers (1971) ArticleTitleThe evolution of reciprocal altruism Q. Rev. Biol. 46 35–57 Occurrence Handle10.1086/406755
R.L. Trivers (1974) ArticleTitleParent-offspring conflict Am. Zool. 14 249–264
F. Vargha-Khadem K. Watkins K. Alcock P. Fletcher R. Passingham (1995) ArticleTitlePraxic and nonverbal cognitive deficits in a large family with a genetically-transmitted speech and language disorder Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 92 930–933 Occurrence Handle7846081
F. Vargha-Khadem K. Watkins C.J. Price J. Ashburner K. Alcock A. Connelly R.S.J. Frackowiak K.J. Friston M.E. Pembrey M. Mishkin D.G. gadian R.E. Passingham (1998) ArticleTitleNeural basis of an inherited speech and language disorder Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 95 12695–12700 Occurrence Handle10.1073/pnas.95.21.12695 Occurrence Handle9770548
K. von Frisch (1967) ArticleTitleHoneybees: do they use direction and distance information provided by their dancers? Science 158 1073–1076
D.B. Wake (1991) ArticleTitleHomoplasy: the result of natural selection, or evidence of design limitations? Am. Nat. 138 543–567 Occurrence Handle10.1086/285234
J. Wallman (1992) Aping Language Cambridge University Press New York
G.E. Weissengruber G. Forstenpointner G. Peters A. Kübber-Heiss W.T. Fitch (2002) ArticleTitleHyoid apparatus and pharynx in the lion (Panthera leo), jaguar (Panthera onca), tiger (Panthera tigris), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), and domestic cat (Felis silvestris f. catus) J. Anat. (London) 201 195–209
A. Whiten R. Ham (1992) On the nature and evolution of imitation in the animal kingdom: reappraisal of a century of research P.J.B. Slater J.S. Rosnblatt C. Beer M. Milinski (Eds) The Study of Behavior Academic Press New York, NY 239–283
G.C. Williams (1966) Adaptation and Natural Selection Princeton University Press Princeton, N.J
E.O. Wilson (1975) Sociobiology Harvard University Press Cambridge MA
R. Worden (1998) The evolution of language from social intelligence J.R. Hurford M. Studdert-Kennedy C. Knight (Eds) Approaches to the Evolution of Language Cambridge University Press New York 148–166
A. Wray (2002) Formulaic Language and the Lexicon Cambridge University Press Cambridge
A.A. Wright J.J. Rivera S. Hulse M. Shyan J.J. Neiworth (2000) ArticleTitleMusic perception and octave generalization in rhesus monkeys J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 129 291–307 Occurrence Handle10.1037/0096-3445.129.3.291 Occurrence Handle11006902
A. Zahavi (1975) ArticleTitleMate selection: a selection for a handicap J. Theor. Biol. 53 205–214 Occurrence Handle10.1016/0022-5193(75)90111-3 Occurrence Handle1195756
K. Zuberbühler (2000a) ArticleTitleCausal cognition in a non-human primate: field playback experiments with Diana monkeys Cognition 76 195–207 Occurrence Handle10.1016/S0010-0277(00)00079-2
K. Zuberbühler (2000b) ArticleTitleInterspecies semantic communication in two forest primates Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 267 713–8 Occurrence Handle10.1098/rspb.2000.1061
K. Zuberbühler (2002) ArticleTitleA syntactic rule in forest monkey communication Anim. Behav. 63 293–299 Occurrence Handle10.1006/anbe.2001.1914
W.H. Zuidema (2005) The major transitions in the evolution of language. Unpublished PhD Thesis University of Edinburgh Edinburgh 225
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Fitch, W.T. The Evolution of Language: A Comparative Review. Biol Philos 20, 193–203 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-005-5597-1
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-005-5597-1