Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Behavioral Inhibition: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Stop-signal Paradigm

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Deficient behavioral inhibition (BI) processes are considered a core feature of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This meta-analytic review is the first to examine the potential influence of a wide range of subject and task variable moderator effects on BI processes—assessed by the stop-signal paradigm—in children with ADHD relative to typically developing children. Results revealed significantly slower mean reaction time (MRT), greater reaction time variability (SDRT), and slower stop-signal reaction time (SSRT) in children with ADHD relative to controls. The non-significant between-group stop-signal delay (SSD) metric, however, suggests that stop-signal reaction time differences reflect a more generalized deficit in attention/cognitive processing rather than behavioral inhibition. Several subject and task variables served as significant moderators for children’s mean reaction time.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Updated meta-analytic reviews frequently exclude studies that were recently reviewed based on a confirmatory approach (i.e., to determine whether ES differences of similar magnitude emerge based on the more recent and different series of studies). The current review includes all published studies to enable a broader moderator analysis and to confirm the SSD effect reported by Lijffijt et al. (2005) after controlling for methodological limitations.

  2. Task duration could not be estimated directly owing to insufficient details reported by the studies.

  3. Relatively few studies included children with comorbid disorders or other ADHD subtypes, and Lijffijt et al. (2005) reported that co-morbidity with ODD/CD was not a significant moderator for any of the three BI metrics.

  4. A listing of excluded studies is available from the author.

  5. One study included a second experiment that examined stop-signal performance in adults (Schachar and Logan 1990). Stop-signal performance for both medicated and unmedicated children were reported in one study (Aman et al. 1998), and only the unmedicated participant results were included in the review. One study included a second condition with unconventional stop-signal delays (Rubia et al. 1998). Another study reported three additional conditions that examined the effects of reinforcement and repetition (Konrad et al. 2000a). Finally, emotional regulation was examined by means of a separate experimental condition in one study (Walcott and Landau 2004).

  6. Excluded studies available from author.

  7. The Q B and Q W analog to ANOVA technique reported in many meta-analytic reviews was not used for primary analyses because it inflates Type I error when used with several moderator variables—see Lipsey and Wilson (2001), for details.

References

  • Aman, C. J., Roberts, R. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1998). A neuropsychological examination of the underlying deficit in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Frontal lobe versus right parietal lobe theories. Developmental Psychology, 34(5), 956–969.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.) text revision (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baddeley, A. D. (1996). Exploring the central executive. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 49A(1), 5–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Band, G. P. H., van der Molen, M. W., & Logan, G. D. (2003). Horse-race model simulations of the stop-signal procedure. Acta Psychologica, 112, 105–142.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 65–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2005). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bedard, A.-C., Nichols, S., Barbosa, J. A., Schachar, R., Logan, G. D., & Tannock, R. (2002). The development of selective inhibitory control across the life span. Developmental Neuropsychology, 21(1), 93–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brandeis, D., van Leeuwen, T. H., Rubia, K., Vitacco, D., Steger, J., Pascual-Marqui, R. D., et al. (1998). Neuroelectric mapping reveals precursor of stop failures in children with attention deficits. Behavioural Brain Research, 94, 111–125.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Scheres, A., Di Martino, A., Hyde, C., & Walters, J. R. (2005). Varieties of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-related intra-individual variability. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1416–1423.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., & Tannock, R. (2002). Neuroscience of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: The search for endophenotypes. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3, 617–628.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daugherty, T. K., Quay, H. C., & Ramos, L. (1993). Response perseveration, inhibitory control, and central dopaminergic activity in childhood behavior disorders. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 154(2), 177–188.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Denney, C. B., Rapport, M. D., & Chung, K. M. (2005). Interactions of task and subject variables among continuous performance tests. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 420–435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A. (2000). Close interrelation of motor development and cognitive development and of the cerebellum and prefrontal cortex. Child Development, 71, 44–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dimoska, A., Johnstone, S. J., Barry, R. J., & Clarke, A. R. (2003). Inhibitory motor control in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Event-related potentials in the stop-signal paradigm. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 54, 1345–1354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolphin, J. E., & Cruickshank, W. M. (1951). Pathology of concept formation in children with cerebral palsy. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 56, 386–392.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, V. I. (1972). Stop, look, and listen: The problem of sustained attention and impulse control in hyperactive and normal children. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 4, 259–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, V. I. (1999). Cognitive control processes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In H. C. Quay (Ed.), Handbook of disruptive behavior disorders (pp. 105–138). The Netherlands: Kluwer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, V. I., & Parry, P. A. (1983). Effects of reward on delayed reaction time task performance of hyperactive children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 2, 313–326.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hedges, L. (1982). Estimation of effect sizes from a series of independent experiments. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 490–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmbeck, G. N. (1997). Toward terminological, conceptual, and statistical clarity in the study of mediators and moderators: Examples from the child-clinical and pediatric literatures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 599–610.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hooks, K., Milich, R., & Lorch, E. P. (1994). Sustained and selective attention in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23, 69–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iaboni, F., Douglas, V. I., & Baker, A. G. (1995). Effects of reward and response costs on inhibition in ADHD children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104(1), 232–240.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalff, A. C., De Sonneville, L. M. J., Hurks, P. P. M., Hendriksen, J. G. M., Kroes, M., Feron, F. J. M., et al. (2005). Speed, speed variability, and accuracy of information processing in 5 to 6-year-old children at risk of ADHD. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11(2), 173–183.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konrad, K., Gauggel, S., Manz, A., & Scholl, M. (2000a). Lack of inhibition: A motivational deficit in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and children with traumatic brain injury. Child Neuropsychology, 6(4), 286–296.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konrad, K., Gauggel, S., Manz, A., & Scholl, M. (2000b). Inhibitory control in children with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Brain Injury, 14(10), 859–875.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuntsi, J., Oosterlaan, J., & Stevenson, J. (2001). Psychological mechanisms in hyperactivity: I Response inhibition deficit, working memory impairment, delay aversion, or something else? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(2), 199–210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lijffijt, M., Kenemans, L., Verbaten, M. N., & van Engeland, H. (2005). A meta-analytic review of stopping performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Deficient inhibitory motor control? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114(2), 216–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. California: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logan, G. (1981). Attention, automaticity, and the ability to stop a speeded choice response. In J. Long & A. D. Baddeley (Eds.), Attention and performance IX (pp. 205–222). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logan, G. D. (1994). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A users’ guide to the stop signal paradigm. In D. Dagenbach & T. H. Carr (Eds.), Inhibitory processes in attention, memory, and language (pp. 189–239). San Diego, CA: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logan, G. D., Cowan, W. B., & Davis, K. A. (1984). On the ability to inhibit simple and choice reaction time responses: A model and a method. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 10(2), 276–291.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Logan, G. D., Schachar, R. J., & Tannock, R. (1997). Impulsivity and inhibitory control. Psychological Science, 8(1), 60–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lorber, M. F. (2004). Psychophysiology of aggression, psychopathy, and conduct problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130(4), 531–552.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Losier, B. J., McGrath, P. J., & Klein, R. M. (1996). Error patterns of the continuous performance test in non-medicated and medicated samples of children with and without ADHD: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 37(8), 971–987.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manassis, K., Tannock, R., & Barbosa, J. (2000). Dichotic listening and response inhibition in children with comorbid anxiety disorders and ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(9), 1152–1159.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martinussen, R., Hayden, J., Hogg-Johnson, S., & Tannock, R. (2005). A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(4), 377–384.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGrath, A. M., Handwerk, M. L., Armstrong, K. J., Lucas, C. P., & Friman, P. C. (2004). The validity of the ADHD section of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children. Behavior Modification, 28, 349–374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McInerney, R. J., & Kerns, K. A. (2003). Time reproduction in children with ADHD: Motivation matters. Child Neuropsychology, 9(2), 91–108.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Michas, I. C., & Henry, L. A. (1994). The link between phonological memory and vocabulary acquisition. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12(2), 147–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T. (1999). The ADHD response-inhibition deficit as measured by the stop task: Replication with DSM-IV combined type, extension, and qualification. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 27(5), 393–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T. (2001). Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder? Psychological Bulletin, 127(5), 571–598.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., Blaskey, L. G., Huang-Pollock, C. L., & Rappley, M. D. (2002). Neuropsychological executive functions and DSM-IV ADHD subtypes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 59–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oosterlaan, J., Logan, G. D., & Sergeant, J. A. (1998). Response inhibition in AD/HD, CD, comorbid AD/HD+CD, anxious, and control children: A meta-analysis of studies with the stop task. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 411–425.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (1996). Inhibition in ADHD, aggressive, and anxious children: A biologically based model of child psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24(1), 19–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Overtoom, C. C. E., Kenemans, J. L., Verbaten, M. N., Kemner, C., van der Molen, M. W., van Engeland, H., et al. (2002). Inhibition in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A psychophysiological study of the stop task. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 668–676.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pickering, S. J., Gathercole, S. E., & Peaker, S. M. (1998).Verbal visuospatial short-term memory in children: Evidence for common and distinct mechanisms. Memory & Cognition, 26(6), 1117–1130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pliszka, S. R., Borcherding, S. H., Spratley, K., Leon, S., & Irick, S. (1997). Measuring inhibitory control. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 18(4), 254–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pliszka, S. R., Liotti, M., & Woldorff, M. G. (2000). Inhibitory control in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Event-related potentials identify the processing component and timing of an impaired right-frontal response-inhibition mechanism. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 238–246.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Purvis, K. L., & Tannock, R. (2000). Phonological processing, not inhibitory control, differentiates ADHD and reading disability. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(4), 485–494.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quay, H. C. (1997). Inhibition and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25(1), 7–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapport, M. D., Chung, K., Shore, G., & Isaacs, P. (2001). A conceptual model of child psychopathology: Implications for understanding attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and treatment efficacy. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 48–58.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapport, M. D., Timko, T. M., & Wolfe, R. (2006). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In M. Hersen (Ed.), Clinicians handbook of child behavioral assessment (pp. 401–435). San Diego: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rieger, M., & Gauggel, S. (1999). Inhibitory after-effects in the stop signal paradigm. British Journal of Psychology, 90, 509–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, M. A. (1990). A behavioral observation method for differentiating hyperactive and aggressive boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18, 131–142.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R. (1995). Writing meta-analytic reviews. Psychological Bulletin, 118(2), 183–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubia, K., Oosterlaan, J., Sergeant, J. A., Brandeis, D., & van Leeuwen, T. (1998). Inhibitory dysfunction in hyperactive boys. Behavioural Brain Research, 94(1), 25–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schachar, R. J., Chin, S., Logan, G. D., Ornstein, T. J., Crosbie, J., Ickowicz, A., et al. (2004). Evidence for an error monitoring deficit in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32(3), 285–293.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schachar, R., & Logan, G. D. (1990). Impulsivity and inhibitory control in normal development. Developmental Psychology, 26(5), 710–720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schachar, R., Mota, V., Logan, G., Tannock, R., & Klim, P. (2000). Confirmation of an inhibitory Control Deficit in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(3), 227–235.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schachar, R., Tannock, R., Marriott, M., & Logan, G. (1995). Deficient inhibitory control in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23(4), 411–437.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheres, A., Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (2001). Response inhibition in children with DSM-IV subtypes of AD/HD and related disruptive disorders: The role of reward. Child Neuropsychology, 7(3), 172–189.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sergeant, J. A., Oosterlaan, J., & van der Meere, J. (1999). Information processing and energetic factors in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In H. C. Quay & A. E. Hogan (Eds.), Handbook of disruptive behavior disorders (pp. 75–104). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E. E., Jonides, J., & Koeppe, R. A. (1996). Dissociating verbal and spatial working memory using PET. Cerebral Cortex, 6(1), 11–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solanto, M. V., Abikoff, H., Sonuga-Barke, E., Schachar, R., Logan, G. D., Wigal, T., et al. (2001). The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD: A supplement to the NIMH multimodal treatment study of AD/HD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(3), 215–228.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2002). Psychological heterogeneity in AD/HD: A dual pathway model of behaviour and cognition. Behavioural Brain Research, 130(1–2), 29–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, J., Quittner, A. L., Zuckerman, J. B., & Moore, S. (2002). Behavioral inhibition, self-regulation of motivation, and working memory in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Neuropsychology, 21(2), 117–139.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, A. A., & Kephardt, N. C. (1955). Psychopathology and education of the brain-injured child. New York: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, A. A., & Lehtinen, L. (1947). Psychopathology and education of the brain-injured child. Oxford, England: Grune & Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Meel, C. S., Oosterlaan, J., & Heslenfeld, D. J. (2005). Motivational effects on motor timing in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(5), 451–460.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walcott, C. M., & Landau, S. (2004). The relation between disinhibition and emotion regulation in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(4), 772–782.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, B. R., Ponesse, J. S., Schachar, R. J., Logan, G. D., & Tannock, R. (1999). Development of inhibitory control across the life span. Developmental Psychology, 35(1), 205–213.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mark D. Rapport.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Alderson, R.M., Rapport, M.D. & Kofler, M.J. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Behavioral Inhibition: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Stop-signal Paradigm. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35, 745–758 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9131-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9131-6

Keywords

Navigation