Abstract
Depression commonly co-occurs with anxiety and externalizing problems. Etiological factors from a central cognitive theory of depression, the Hopelessness Theory (Abramson et al. Psychological Review, 96, 358–372, 1989), were examined to evaluate whether a negative inferential style about cause, consequence, and self interacted with stressors over time to predict prospective elevations in depressive symptoms specifically compared with typically co-occurring symptoms. Negative inferential style was assessed at baseline in a sample of early and middle adolescents (N = 350, sixth to tenth graders). Measures of general depressive, anhedonic depressive, anxious arousal, general internalizing, and externalizing symptoms and occurrence of stressors were assessed at four time points over a 5-month period. Results using hierarchical linear modeling show that a negative inferential style interacted with negative events to predict prospective symptoms of general and anhedonic depression specifically but not anxious arousal, general internalizing or externalizing symptoms. Negative events predicted prospective elevations of symptoms of anxious arousal, internalizing, and externalizing problems.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The equation used for level 1 model for symptoms over four time points:
$${\text{Symptoms}}_{tij} = B0_j + B1_j * \left( {{\text{Stress}}} \right) + B2 * \left( {{\text{Symptoms}}_{t - 1ij} } \right) + R_{ij} $$Equations for level 2 models:
$$\begin{array}{*{20}c} {B0_j = G_{00} + G_{01} * \left( {{\text{ACSQ}}} \right) + U_{0j} } \\ {B1_j = G_{10} + G_{11} * \left( {{\text{ACSQ}}} \right) + U_{1j} } \\ {B2_j = G_{20} + U_{2j} } \\ \end{array} $$
References
Abela, J. R. Z. (2001). The hopelessness theory of depression: A test of the diathesis-stress and causal mediation components in third and seventh grade children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 241–254.
Abela, J. R. Z., Adams, P., & Hankin, B. L. (2006a). The timing of parent and child depression: A Hopelessness Theory perspective. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 253–263.
Abela, J. R. Z., & Hankin, B. L. (2008). Cognitive vulnerability to depression in children and adolescence: A developmental psychopathology approach. In J. R. Z. Abela, & B. L. Hankin (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent depression (pp. 35–78). NY: Guilford Press.
Abela, J. R. Z. & Sarin, S. (2002). Cognitive vulnerability to hopelessness deppression: A chain is only as strong as its weakest link. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 26, 811–829.
Abela, J. R. Z., & Sullivan, C. (2003). A test of Beck’s cognitive diathesis-stress theory of depression in early adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 23, 384–404.
Abela, J. R. Z., Zuroff, D. C., Ho, R., Adams, P., & Hankin, B. L. (2006b). Excessive reassurance seeking, hassles, and depressive symptoms in children of affectively-ill parents: A multi-wave longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 171–188.
Abramson, L. Y., Alloy, L. B., Hankin, B. L., Haeffel, G. J., MacCoon, D., & Gibb, B. E. (2002). Cognitive vulnerability–stress models of depression in a self-regulatory and psychobiological context. In I. H. Gotlib, & C. Hammen (Eds.), Handbook of depression (pp. 295–313). New York: The Guilford Press.
Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358–372.
Albano, A. M., Chorpita, B. F., & Barlow, D. (2003). Childhood anxiety disorders. In E. J. Mash, & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 279–329). NY: Guilford Press.
Alloy, L. B., Kelly, K. A., & Mineka, S. (1990). Comorbidity of anxiety and depressive disorders: A helplessness-hopelessness perspective. In J. D. Maser, & R. C. Cloninger (Eds.), Comorbidity of mood and anxiety disorders (pp. 499–543). Washington, DC, US: American Psychiatric Association.
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 40, 57–87.
Avenevoli, S., Knight, E., Kessler, R. C., & Merikangas, K. R. (2008). The epidemiology of depression in children and adolescents. In J. R. Z. Abela, & B. L. Hankin (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent depression (pp. 6–34). NY: Guilford.
Avenevoli, S., Stolar, M., Li, J., Dierker, L., & Merikangags, K. (2001). Comorbidity of depression in children and adolescents: Models and evidence from a prospective high-risk family study. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 1071–1081.
Bell, D. J., Foster, S. L., & Mash, E. J. (2005). Understanding behavioral and emotional problems in girls. In D. J. Bell, S. L. Foster, & E. J. Mash (Eds.), Handbook of behavioral and emotional problems in girls (pp. 1–24). New York, NY, US: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publisher.
Birmaher, B., Ryan, N. D., Williamson, D. E., Brent, D. A., Kaufman, J., Dahl, R. E., et al. (1996). Childhood and adolescent depression: A review of the past 10 years. Part I. Journal of American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1427–1439.
Bolger, N., Davis, A., & Rafaeli, E. (2003). Diary methods: Capturing life as it is lived. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 579–616.
Brozina, K., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2006). Symptoms of depression and anxiety in children: Specificity of the hopelessness theory. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 515–527.
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.
Chorpita, B. F., Albano, A. M., & Barlow, D. H. (1998). The structure of negative emotions in a clinical sample of children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 74–85.
Chorpita, B. F., Moffitt, C. E., & Gray, J. (2005). Psychometric properties of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale in a clinical sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 309–322.
Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 316–336.
Cohen, P., & Cohen, J. (1984). The clinician’s illusion. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 1178–1182.
Cohen, P., Cohen, J., Kasen, S., & Velez, C. N. (1993). An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence: I. Age and gender specific prevalence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 34, 851–867.
Cole, D. A., & Turner, J. E. (1993). Models of cognitive mediation and moderation in child depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 271–281.
Costello, E. J., & Angold, A. (2006). Developmental epidemiology. In D. Cicchetti, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Develomental psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 41–75). NY: Wiley.
Costello, E. J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 837–844.
Curran, P. J., & Bollen, K. A. (2001). The best of both worlds: Combining autoregressive and latent curve models. In L. M. Collins, & A. G. Sayer (Eds.), New methods for the analysis of change: Decade of behavior (pp. 107–135). Washington, D.C.: APA.
Curran, P. J., & Willoughby, M. T. (2003). Implications of latent trajectory models for the study of developmental psychopathology. Development And Psychopathology, 15(3), 581–612.
Dixon, J. F., & Ahrens, A. H. (1992). Stress and attributional style as predictors of self-reported depression in children. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 16, 623–634.
Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., & Ridder, E. M. (2005). Subthreshold Depression in Adolescence and Mental Health Outcomes in Adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 66–72.
Garber, J. (2000). Development and depression. In A. J. Sameroff, M. Lewis, & S. M. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 467–490). New York:Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
Gibb, B. E., & Alloy, L. B. (2006). A prospective test of the hopelessness theory of depression in children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 4–274.
Gibb, B. E., Beevers, C. G., & Andover, M. S. (2007). The hopelessness theory of depression: A prospective multi-wave test of the vulnerability–stress hypothesis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30, 763–772.
Gladstone, T. R. G., Kaslow, N. J., Seeley, J. R., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (1997). Sex differences, attributional style, and depressive symptoms among adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 297–305.
Goodman, R. (2001). Psychometric properties of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1337–1345.
Gotlib, I. H., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1995). Symptoms versus a diagnosis of depression: Differences in psychosocial functioning. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 90–100.
Hammen, C. (1991). The generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 555–561.
Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 293–319.
Hammen, C., Adrian, C., & Hiroto, D. (1988). A longitudinal test of the attributional vulnerability model in children at risk for depression. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 37–46.
Hammen, C., & Rudolph, K. D. (2003). Childhood mood disorders. In E. J. Mash, & R. A. Barkley (Eds.) Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 233–278). NY: Guilford Press.
Hankin, B. L. (2008). Response styles theory and symptom specificity in adolescents: A multi-wave prospective study. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, (in press)
Hankin, B. L., & Abela, J. R. Z. (2005). Depression from childhood through adolescence and adulthood: A developmental vulnerability–stress perspective. In B. L. Hankin, & J. R. Z. Abela (Eds.), Development of psychopathology: A vulnerability–stress perspective (pp. 245–288). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.
Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability–transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773–796.
Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2002). Measuring cognitive vulnerability to depression in adolescence: Reliability, validity, and gender differences. Journal of Child and Adolescent Clinical Psychology, 31, 491–504.
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Miller, N., & Haeffel, G. J. (2004). Cognitive vulnerability–stress theories of depression: Examining affective specificity in the prediction of depression versus anxiety in three prospective studies. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28, 309–345.
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., McGee, R., Silva, P. A., & Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 128–140.
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., & Siler, M. (2001). A prospective test of the hopelessness theory of depression in adolescence. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 607–632.
Hankin, B. L., Fraley, R. C., Lahey, B. B., & Waldman, I. (2005). Is youth depressive disorder best viewed as a continuum or discrete category? A taxometric analysis of childhood and adolescent depression in a population-based sample. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 96–110.
Hankin, B. L., Wetter, E., & Cheely, C. A. (2008a). Sex differences in child and adolescent depression: A developmental psychopathological approach. In J. R. Z. Abela, & B. L. Hankin (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent depression (pp. 377–414). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Hankin, B. L., Wetter, E., Cheely, C., & Oppenheimer, C. (2008b). Beck’s cognitive theory of depression in adolescence: Prospective prediction of depressive symptoms and transactional influences in a multi-wave study. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, (in press)
Hilsman, R., & Garber, J. (1995). A test of the cognitive diathesis-stress model of depression in children: Academic stressors, attributional style, perceived competence, and control. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 69, 370–380.
Hinshaw, S. P., & Lee, S. P. (2003). Conduct and oppositional defiant disorders. In E. J. Mash, & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 144–198). NY: Guilford Press.
Ingram, R. E., Miranda, J., & Segal, Z. V. (1998). Cognitive vulnerability to depression. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Joiner, T. E. (2000). A test of the hopelessness theory of depression in youth psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 167–176.
Joiner, T. E. Jr., Catanzaro, S. J., & Laurent, J. (1996). Tripartite structure of positive and negative affect, depression, and anxiety in child and adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 401–409.
Joormann, J., Talbot, L., & Gotlib, I. H. (2007). Biased processing of emotional information in girls at risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 135–143.
Keenan, K., & Hipwell, A. E. (2005). Preadolescent clues to understanding depression in girls. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, 89–105.
Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Harrington, H., Milne, B. J., & Poulton, R. (2003). Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorder: Developmental follow-back of a prospective-longitudinal cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 709–717.
King, N. J., Ollendick, T. H., & Gullone, E. (1991). Test anxiety in children and adolescents. Australian Psychologist, 26, 25–32.
Klein, D. N., Dougherty, L. R., & Olino, T. M. (2005). Added toward guidelines for evidence-based assessment of depression in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 412–432.
Kovacs, M. (1981). Rating scales to assess depression in school children. Acta Paedopsychiatrica, 46, 305–315.
Krueger, R. F., & Markon, K. E. (2006). Understanding psychopathology: Melding behavior genetics, personality, and quantitative psychology to develop an empirically based model. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 113–117.
Krueger, R. F., Markon, K. E., Patrick, C. J., & Iacono, W. G. (2005). Externalizing psychopathology in adulthood: A dimensional spectrum conceptualization and its implications for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 537–550.
Lahey, B. B., Applegate, B., Waldman, I., Hankin, B. L., & Rick, J. (2004). The Structure of Child and Adolescent Psychopathology: Generating New Hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 358–385.
Lahey, B. B., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2003). Causes of conduct disorder and juvenile delinquency. New York: Guilford.
Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Burke, J., Rathouz, P. J., & McBurnett, K. (2002). Waxing and waning in concert: Dynamic comorbidity of conduct disorder with other disruptive and emotional problems over 17 years among clinic-referred boys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 556–567.
Lakdawalla, Z., Hankin, B. L., & Mermelstein, R. (2007). Cognitive theories of depression in children and adolescents: A conceptual and quantitative review. Child Clinical and Family Psychology Review, 10, 1–24.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Gotlib, I. H., Lewinsohn, M., Seeley, J. R., & Allen, N. B. (1998). Gender differences in anxiety disorders and anxiety symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 109–118.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., Roberts, R. E., Seeley, J. R., & Andrews, J. A. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology:1. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-R disorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 133–144.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Joiner, T. E., & Rohde, P. (2001). Evaluation of cognitive diathesis-stress models in predicting major depressive disorder in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 203–215.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1995). Adolescent psychopathology: III. The clinical consequences of comorbidity. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 510–519.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., & Gotlib, I. H. (1997). Depression related psychosocial variables: Are they specific to depression in adolescents? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 365–375.
Lonigan, C. J., Hooe, E. S., David, C. F., & Kistner, J. A. (1999). Positive and negative affectivity in children: Confirmatory factor analysis of a two-factor model and its relation to symptoms of anxiety and depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 374–386.
Luten, A., Ralph, J., & Mineka, S. (1997). Depressive attributional style: Is it specific to depression vs. anxiety vs. negative affect? Behavior Research and Therapy, 8, 703–720.
McMahon, S. D., Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., & Ey, S. (2003). Stress and psychopathology in children and adolescents: Is there evidence of specificity? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 107–133.
Meehl, P. E. (1977). Psychodiagnosis: Selected papers. Oxford, England: U. Minnesota Press.
Metalsky, G. I., & Joiner, T. E. Jr. (1992). Vulnerability to depressive symptomatology: A prospective test of the diathesis- stress and causal mediation components of the hopelessness theory of depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 667–675.
Mineka, S., Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1998). Comorbidity of anxiety and unipolar mood disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 377–412.
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Rutter, M., & Silva, P. A. (2001). Sex differences in antisocial behaviour. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Monroe, S. M., & Roberts, J. E. (1990). Conceptualizing and measuring life stress: Problems, principles. procedures, progress. Stress Medicine, 6, Special issue: IIV. Advances in measuring life stress, 209–216.
Monroe, S. M., & Simons, A. D. (1991). Diathesis-stress theories in the context of life stress research: Implications for the depressive disorders. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 406–425.
Newman, D. L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Silva, P. A. (1998). Comorbid mental disorders: Implications for treatment and sample selection. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 305–311.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1992). Predictors and consequences of childhood depressive symptoms: A 5-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 405–422.
Osgood, D. W., McMorris, B. J., & Potenza, M. T. (2002). Analyzing multiple-item measures of crime and deviance I: Item response theory scaling. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 18, 267–296.
Pine, D. S., Cohen, P., Gurley, D., Brook, J., & Ma, Y. (1998). The risk for early-adulthood anxiety and depressive disorders in adolescents with anxiety and depressive disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 56–64.
Ralph, J., & Mineka, S. (1998). Attributional style and self esteem: The prediction of emotional distress following a midterm exam. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 203–215.
Raudenbush, S. W. (2000). Comparing personal trajectories and drawing causal inferences from longitudinal data. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 501–525.
Raudenbush, S. W., Bryk, A., Cheong, Y. F., & Congdon, R. (2001). Hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling 5.04. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International.
Rivas-Vazquez, R. A., Saffa-Biller, D., & Ruiz, I. (2004). Current Issues in Anxiety and Depression: Comorbid, Mixed, and Subthreshold Disorders. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34, 74–83.
Robinson, N. S., Garber, J., & Hilsman, R. (1995). Cognitions and stress: Direct and moderating effects on depressive versus externalizing symptoms during the junior high transition. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 453–463.
Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., & Daley, S. E. (2006). Mood disorders. In D. A. Wolfe, & E. J. Mash (Eds.), Behavioral and emotional disorders in adolescents: Nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 300–342). New York, NY, US: Guilford Publications.
Rutter, M., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2003). Using sex differences in psychopathology to study causal mechanisms: Unifying issues and research. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 44, 1092–1115.
Scher, C. D., Ingram, R. E., & Segal, Z. V. (2005). Cognitive reactivity and vulnerability: Empirical evaluation of construct activation and cognitive diatheses in unipolar depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 487–510.
Seligman, L. D., & Ollendick, T. H. (1998). Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in children and adolescents: An integrative review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 1, 125–144.
Simons, A. D., Angell, K. L., & Monroe, S. M. (1993). Cognition and life stress in depression: Cognitive factors and the definition, rating, and generation of negative life events. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 584–591.
Stark, K. D., & Laurent, J. (2001). Joint factor analysis of the Children’s Depression Inventory and the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 552–567.
Swendsen, J. D. (1997). Anxiety, depression, and their comorbidity: An experience sampling test of the Helplessness-Hopelessness Theory. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 21, 97–114.
Timbremont, B., Braet, C., & Dreessen, L. (2004). Assessing depression in youth: relation between the Children’s Depression Inventory and a structured interview. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 149–157.
Tram, J. M., & Cole, D. A. (2006). A multimethod examination of the stability of depressive symptoms in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 674–686.
Twenge, J. M., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort difference on the children’s depression inventory: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 578–588.
Vasey, M. W., & Ollendick, T. H. (2000). Anxiety. In A. J. Sameroff, M. Lewis, & S. Miller (Eds.) Handbook of developmental psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 511–529). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Wade, T. J., Cairney, J., & Pevalin, D. J. (2002). Emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence: National panel results from three countries. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(2), 190–198.
Watson, D. (2005). Rethinking the mood and anxiety disorders: A quantitative hierarchical model for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 522–536.
Watson, D., Weber, K., Assenheimer, J. S., Clark, L. A., Strauss, M. E., & McCormick, R. A. (1995). Testing a tripartite model: I. Evaluating the convergent and discriminant validity of anxiety and depression scales. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 3–14.
Weiss, B., Susser, K., & Catron, T. (1998). Common and specific features of childhood psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 118–128.
Vollebergh, W. A. M., Iedema, J., Bijl, R. V., de Graaf, R., Smit, F., & Ormel, J. (2001). The structure and stability of common mental disorders: The NEMESIS study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58, 597–603.
Zahn-Waxler, C., Crick, N. R., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Woods, K. E. (2006). The origins and development of psychopathology in females and males. In D. Cicchetti, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology, Vol 1. Theory and method (2nd ed., pp. 76–138). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hankin, B.L. Cognitive Vulnerability–Stress Model of Depression During Adolescence: Investigating Depressive Symptom Specificity in a Multi-Wave Prospective Study. J Abnorm Child Psychol 36, 999–1014 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9228-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9228-6