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Biodegradability of chlorinated solvents and related chlorinated aliphatic compounds

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Abstract

The biodegradability of chlorinated methanes, chlorinated ethanes, chlorinated ethenes, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chlorinated acetic acids, chlorinated propanoids and chlorinated butadienes was evaluated based on literature data. Evidence for the biodegradation of compounds in all of the compound categories evaluated has been reported. A broad range of chlorinated aliphatic structures are susceptible to biodegradation under a variety of physiological and redox conditions. Microbial biodegradation of a wide variety of chlorinated aliphatic compounds was shown to occur under five physiological conditions. However, any given physiological condition could only act upon a subset of the chlorinated compounds. Firstly, chlorinated compounds are used as an electron donor and carbon source under aerobic conditions. Secondly, chlorinated compounds are cometabolized under aerobic conditions while the microorganisms are growing (or otherwise already have grown) on another primary substrate. Thirdly, chlorinated compounds are also degraded under anaerobic conditions in which they are utilized as an electron donor and carbon source. Fourthly, chlorinated compounds can serve as an electron acceptor to support respiration of anaerobic microorganisms utilizing simple electron donating substrates. Lastly chlorinated compounds are subject to anaerobic cometabolism becoming biotransformed while the microorganisms grow on other primary substrate or electron acceptor. The literature survey demonstrates that, in many cases, chlorinated compounds are completely mineralised to benign end products. Additionally, biodegradation can occur rapidly. Growth rates exceeding 1 d-1 were observed for many compounds. Most compound categories include chlorinated structures that are used to support microbial growth. Growth can be due to the use of the chlorinated compound as an electron donor or alternatively to the use of the chlorinated compound as an electron acceptor (halorespiration). Biodegradation linked to growth is important, since under such conditions, rates of degradation will increase as the microbial population (biocatalyst) increases. Combinations of redox conditions are favorable for the biodegradation of highly chlorinated structures that are recalcitrant to degradation under aerobic conditions. However, under anaerobic conditions, highly chlorinated structures are partially dehalogenated to lower chlorinated counterparts. The lower chlorinated compounds are subsequently more readily mineralized under aerobic conditions.

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Abbreviations

A:

ethane

BTEX:

benzene–toluene–ethyl benzene–xylene

CA:

chloroethane

CAA:

chloroacetic acid

2-CBD:

2-chloro-1,3-butadiene

cDCE:

cis-dichloroethene

CF:

chloroform

CFC:

chlorofluorocarbons (seeTable 15 for CFC-nomenculture )

Cl:

inorganic chloride

CM:

chloromethane

CO:

carbon monoxide

CoM:

cometabolism

CPrpA:

chloropropane

CPrpE:

chloropropene

CSTR:

completely stirred tank reactor

CT:

carbon tetrachloride

c/tDCE:

unspecified mixture of cis- and trans-dichloroethene

DCA:

dichloroethane

DCAA:

dichloroacetic acid

1,1-DCE:

1,1-dichloroethene

DCM:

dichloromethane

DCPrpA:

dichloropropane

DCPrpE:

dichloropropene

DNAPL:

dense non-aqueous phase liquid

Dwt:

dry weight

E:

ethene

EA:

electron acceptor

ED:

electron donor

EPC:

epichlorohydrin or 3-chloro-1,2-epoxypropane

HCA:

hexachloroethane

HCBD:

hexachlorochloro-1,3-butadiene

HCFC:

hydrochlorofluorocarbons

HeCPrpA:

hexachloropropane

HS-G:

glutathione

MMO:

methane monooxygenases

PCA:

pentachloroethane

PCBD:

pentachlorobutadiene

PCE:

perchloroethylene

pMMO:

membrane-bound methane monooxygenases

PRB:

permeable reactive barrier

sMMO:

soluble methane monooxygenases

Tc:

transformation capacity

TCA:

trichloroethane

TCAA:

trichloroacetic acid

TCBD:

trichlorobutadiene

TCE:

trichloroethylene

TCPrpA:

trichloropropane

TeCA:

tetrachloroethane

tDCE:

trans-dichloroethene

TeCBD:

tetrachlorobutadiene

TFAA:

trifluoroacetic acid

ToMO:

toluene/ortho-xylene monoxygenase

UASB:

upflow anaerobic sludge bed reactor

VC:

vinyl chloride

VSS:

volatile suspended solids.

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  1. Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210011, 85721-0011, Tucson, Arizona, USA

    J.A Field & R Sierra-Alvarez

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  1. J.A Field
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  2. R Sierra-Alvarez
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Field, J., Sierra-Alvarez, R. Biodegradability of chlorinated solvents and related chlorinated aliphatic compounds. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 3, 185–254 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-004-4733-8

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