Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

A Prospective Study of Childhood and Adolescent Antecedents of Homelessness among a Community Population of African Americans

  • Published:
Journal of Urban Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Much is known about contemporaneous correlates of homelessness from studies of homeless individuals. However, few studies have prospectively examined early antecedents and prevalence of homelessness in community populations. We use data from a 35-year study of a community population of African Americans to examine relationships between homelessness and prior structural, family, school, and behavioral influences. Nearly 22% of males and 16% of females reported homelessness between ages 15 and 42, providing a rare estimate within an African American urban community population. In bivariate analyses, lower school bonds, depressed mood, violent behavior, and running away in adolescence are predictive for both males and females. Teen parenting and angry mood are unique influences for females, while for males, poor first grade classroom conduct and adolescent substance use are unique risks. In multivariate analyses, poor classroom conduct and weaker school bonds predict homelessness among males, while teen parenting does so for females. Running away before age 15 is strongly predictive of later homelessness for both males and females. These results reveal the relative influence of multiple, interrelated early risks on homelessness and confirm our hypothesis that factors linked to other poor outcomes also relate to homelessness, underscoring another benefit to early prevention efforts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Varney D, van Vliet W. Homelessness, children, and youth: research in the United States and Canada. Am Behav Sci. 2008; 51: 715–720.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Urban Institute. A new look at homelessness in America. Urban Institue Web site. http://www.urban.org. Accessed August 6, 2010.

  3. Hwang SW, Tolomiczenko G, Kouyoumdjian FG, Garner RE. Interventions to improve the health of the homeless: a systematic review. Am J Prev Med. 2005; 29(4): 311–319.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Raoult D, Foucault C, Brouqui P. Infections of the homeless. Lancet Infect Dis. 2001; 1(2): 77–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Segal SP, Gomory T, Silverman CJ. Health status of homeless and marginally housed users of mental health self-help agencies. Health Soc Work. 1998; 23(1): 45–52.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Abt Associates. Costs Associated with First-Time Homelessness for Families and Individuals. Washington, DC: US Department of Housing and Urban Development; March 23, 2010.

  7. Office of Policy Development and Research, US Department of Housing and Urban Development. Evaluation of the Emergency Shelter Grants Program, Volume 1: Findings. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development; 1993, p 91.

  8. Rosenheck, R, Bassuk, E, Salomon, A. Special Populations of Homeless Americans, Practial Lessons: The 1998 National Symposium on Homelessness Research. Washington, DC: US Department of Housing and Urban Development, US Department of Health and Human Services; 1999.

  9. Salt SA, Kuhn EM, Hartz AJ, Vu JM, Mosso AL. Hospitalization costs associated with homelessness in New York City. New Engl J Med. 1998; 338: 1734–1740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Caton CLM, Dominguez B, Schanzer B, et al. Risk factors for long-term homelessness: findings from a longitudinal study of first-time homeless single adults. Am J Public Health. 2005; 95: 1753–1759.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Caton CLM, Shrout PE, Eagle PF, Opler LA, Cournos F. Risk factors for homelessness among women with schizophrenia: a case-control study. Am J Public Health. 1995; 85: 1153–1156.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Kemp P, Neale J, Robertson M. Homelessness among problem drug users: prevalence, risk factors, and trigger events. Health Soc Care Comm. 2006; 14(4): 319–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. National Coalition for the Homeless. Fact sheet: How Many People Experience Homelessness? National Coalition for the Homeless Web site. http://www.nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/How_Many.html. Accessed October 11, 2010.

  14. North CS, Pollio DE, Smith EM, Spitznagel EL. Correlates of early onset and chronicity of homelessness in a large urban homeless population. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1998; 186: 393–400.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Shinn M, Gottlieb J, Wett JL, Bahl A, Cohen A, Ellis DB. Predictors of homelessness among older adults in New York City: disability, economic, human and social capital and stressful events. J Health Psychol. 2007; 12(5): 696–708.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Herman DB, Susser ES, Struening EL, Link BL. Adverse childhood experiences: are they risk factors for adult homelessness? Am J Public Health. 1997; 87: 249–255.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Koegel P, Melamid E, Burnam MA. Childhood risk factors for homelessness among homeless adults. Am J Public Health. 1995; 85(12): 1642–1649.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Shelton KH, Taylor PJ, Bonner A, van den Bree M. Risk factors for homelessness: evidence from a population-based study. Psychiatr Serv. 2009; 60(4): 465–472.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Susser E, Lin S, Conover S, Struening E. Childhood antecedents of homelessness in psychiatric patients. Am J Psychiat. 1991; 148: 1026–1030.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Van den Bree MBM, Shelton K, Bonner A, Moss S, Thomas H, Taylor PJ. A longitudinal population-based study of factors in adolescence predicting homelessness in young adulthood. J Adol Health. 2009; 45: 571–578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Toro PA, Godstein MS. Outcomes among homeless and matched housed adolescents: A longitudinal comparison. Paper presented in the 108th Annual Convention of American Psychological Association. Washington, DC. 2000, August.

  22. Yates GL, MacKenzie R, Pennbridge J, Cohen E. A risk profile comparison of runaway and non-runaway youth. Am J Public Health. 1988; 78: 820–821.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Whitbeck LB, Hoty DR. Nowhere to Grow: Homeless and Runaway Adolescents and their Families. New York, NY: Adline de Gruyter; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Haber MG, Toro PA. Homelessness among families, children, and adolescents: an ecological-developmental perspective. Clinical Child Fam Psychol Rev. 2004; 7(3): 123–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Brook JS, Whiteman M, Cohen P, Shapiro J, Balka E. Longitudinally predicting late adolescent and young adult drug use: childhood and adolescent precursors. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr. 1995; 34: 1230–1238.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Hawkins JD, Catalano RF, Miller JY. Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychol Bull. 1992; 112: 64–105.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Fothergill KE, Ensminger ME, Robertson JA, Juon HS, Green KM. Pathways to adult marijuana and cocaine use: a prospective study of African Americans from age 6 to 42. J Health Soc Behav. 2009; 50: 65–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Fergusson DM, Woodward LJ. Mental health, educational, and social role outcomes of adolescents with depression. Arch Gen Psychiatr. 2009; 59: 225–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Ensminger ME, Juon HS, Fothergill KE. Childhood and adolescent antecedents of substance use in early adulthood. Addiction. 2002; 97: 833–844.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Jessor R, Jessor S. Problem Behavior and Psychosocial Development: A Longitudinal Study of Youth. New York, NY: Academic; 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Brunswick AF, Messeri P, Titus S. Predictive factors in adult substance abuse: A prospective study of African American adolescents. In: Glantz M, Pickens L, eds. Vulnerability to Abuse. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1992: 419–472.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  32. Duncan GJ, Brooks-Gunn J. Consequences of Growing Up Poor. New York, NY: Russell Sage; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Poulton R, Caspi A, Milne BJ, et al. Association between children’s experience of socioeconomic disadvantage and adult health: a life-course study. Lancet. 2002; 360: 1640–1645.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Turner RJ, Lloyd DA. Cumulative adversity and drug dependence in young adults: racial/ethnic contrasts. Addiction. 2003; 98: 305–315.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Cauce AM, Paradise M, Ginzler JA, et al. The characteristics and mental health of homeless adolescents: age and gender differences. J Emot Behav Disord. 2000; 8(4): 230–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Feitel B, Margetson N, Chamas R, Lipman C. Psychosocial background and behavioral and emotional disorders of homeless and runaway youth. Hosp Community Psychiatr. 1992; 43: 155–159.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Simons RL, Whiteck LB. Running away during adolescence as a precursor to adult homelessness. Soc Serv Rev. 1991; 65(2): 224–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Tucker JS, Edelen MO, Ellickson PL, Klein DJ. Running away from home: a longitudinal study of adolescent risk factors and young adult outcomes. J Youth Adolesc. 2010; 40(5): 507–518.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Ringwalt CL, Greene JM, Robertson M, McPheeters M. The prevalence of homelessness among adolescents in the United States. Am J Public Health. 1998; 88(9): 1325–1329.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Conger R, Conger K, Elder G, Lorenz F, Simons R, Whitbeck L. A family process model of economic hardship and adjustment of early adolescent boys. Dev Psychol. 1992; 63: 526–541.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. McLoyd VC. The impact of economic hardship on black families and children: psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. Child Dev. 1990; 61: 311–346.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Rutter M. Protective factors in children’s responses to stress and disadvantage. In: Kent MW, Rolf JE, eds. Social Competence in Children, vol. 3. Hanover, NH: University of New Hampshire; 1979: 49–74.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Brook JS, Whiteman M, Finch S, Cohen P. Mutual attachment, personality, and drug use: pathways from childhood to young adulthood. Genet Soc Gen Psych. 1998; 124(4): 492–510.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Fagan J, Pabon E. Contributions of delinquency and substance use to school dropouts among inner-city youth. Youth Soc. 1990; 21(3): 306–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Tildesley L, Hops H, Ary D, Andrews JA. A multitrait-multimethod model for adolescent deviance, drug use, academic, and sexual behaviors. J Psychopathol Behav. 1995; 17(2): 185–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Ensminger ME, Brown CH, Kellam SG. Sex differences in antecedents of substance use among adolescents. J Soc Issues. 1982; 38(2): 25–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Jessor R, Donovan J, Costa F. Beyond Adolescence: Problem Behavior and Young Adult Development. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Kandel D, Davies M, Karus D, Yamaguchi K. The consequences in young adulthood of adolescent drug involvement. Arch Gen Psychiatr. 1986; 43: 746–754.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Patterson GR, DeBaryshe B, Ramsey E. A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. Am Psychol. 1989; 44: 329–335.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Safyer AW, Thompson SJ, Maccio EM, Zittel-Palamara KM, Forehand G. Adolescents’ and parents’ perceptions of runaway behavior: problems and solutions. Child Adol Soc Work J. 2004; 21: 495–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Oetting ER, Donnermeyer JF. Primary socialization theory: the etiology of drug use and deviance, I. Subst Use Misuse. 1998; 33(4): 995–1026.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Susser E, Moore R, Link B. Risk factors for homelessness. Am J Epidemiol. 1993; 15(2): 546–556.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Kellam SG, Simon MB, Ensminger ME. Antecedents in first grade of teenage substance use and psychological well-being: a ten-year community-wide prospective study. In: Ricks DF, Dohrenwend BS, eds. Origins of Psychopathology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 1983: 17–42.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Crum RM, Juon HS, Green KM, Robertson JA, Fothergill K, Ensminger ME. Educational achievement and early school behavior as predictors of alcohol use disorders: 35-year follow-up of the Woodlawn study. J Stud Alcohol. 2006; 67: 75–85.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Kellam SG, Branch JD, Agrawal KC, Ensminger ME. Mental Health and Going to School: The Woodlawn Program of Assessment, Early Intervention, and Evaluation. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Graham JW. Missing data analysis: making it work in the real world. Annu Rev Psychol. 2009; 60: 549–576.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Rubin DB. Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys. New York, NY: Wiley; 1987.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  58. Royston P. Multiple imputation of missing values: update of ICE. Stata J. 2005; 5(4): 527–536.

    Google Scholar 

  59. StataCorp. Stata Statistical Software: Release 11. College Station, TX: StataCorp LP; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Hosmer DW, Lemeshow S. Applied Logistic Regression. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Wiley; 2000.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  61. Link BG, Susser E, Stueve A, Phelan J, Moore RE, Struening E. Lifetime and five-year prevalence of homelessness in the United States. Am J Public Health. 1994; 84(12): 1907–1912.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Shlay AB, Rossi PH. Social science research and contemporary studies of homelessness. Annu Rev Sociol. 1992; 18: 129–160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Loeber R, Green SM, Lahey BB, Kalb L. Physical fighting in childhood as a risk factor for later mental health problems. J Am Acad Child Psychiatr. 2000; 39(4): 421–428.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. East PL, Felice ME. Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenting Findings from a Racially Diverse Sample. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Taylor JL. Midlife impacts of adolescent parenthood. J Fam Issues. 2009; 30(4): 484–510.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Rohde P, Noell J, Ochs L, Seeley JR. Depression, suicidal ideation, and STD-related risk in homeless older adolescents. J Adolescence. 2001; 24(4): 447–460.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Heffron WA, Skipper BJ, Lambert L. Risk factors for homelessness: a study of families of origin. Fam Med. 1995; 27: 586–591.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was supported by a pilot study award from the Columbia Center for Homelessness Prevention Studies, in connection with grant # P30MH071430 from the National Institute of Mental Health, and by grants from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA026863-01 and R01DA0223366-01A2).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Kate E. Fothergill, Elaine E. Doherty, Judith A. Robertson & Margaret E. Ensminger

Authors
  1. Kate E. Fothergill
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Elaine E. Doherty
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Judith A. Robertson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Margaret E. Ensminger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kate E. Fothergill.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Fothergill, K.E., Doherty, E.E., Robertson, J.A. et al. A Prospective Study of Childhood and Adolescent Antecedents of Homelessness among a Community Population of African Americans. J Urban Health 89, 432–446 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-011-9641-y

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-011-9641-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation