Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Complexities in identifying and defining mathematics learning disability in the primary school-age years

  • Part III Speech Development, Perception, and Production; Components of Reading; Defining Mathematics Learning Disability
  • Published:
Annals of Dyslexia Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This paper is a descriptive report of findings from a prospective longitudinal study of math disability (MD). The study was designed to address the incidence of MD during primary school, the utility of different MD definitions, and evidence of MD subtypes. The results illustrate the dynamic properties of psychometrically derived definitions of MD. Different groups of children meet criteria for MD depending on which measure(s) are used for identification. Over time, a given individual may not continue to meet MD criteria, even when using the same assessments. Thus, the findings lead to cautions regarding the single-tool/ one-time assessment for a clinical diagnosis of MD. Twenty-two of 209 participants demonstrated “persistent MD” (MD-p), or MD for more than one school grade. Reading disability was relatively more frequent in this MD-p subgroup than in the remaining participants (25 percent vs. 7 percent). Reading-related skills were correlated with math achievement, as were select visual spatial skills. There was minimal overlap between groups who met either a “poor achievement” criteria or an “IQ-achievement discrepancy,” and the latter was far less stable a measure over time than the former. The results highlight the complexities of defining MD and illustrate the need for more research in this area.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alarcon, M., DeFries, J. C., Light, J. G., & Pennington, B. C. (1997). A twin study of mathematics disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 617–623.

    Google Scholar 

  • Badian, N. (1983). Dyscalculia and nonverbal disorders of learning. In H. Myklebust (Ed.). Progress in learning disabilities (pp. 235–264). New York: Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Battistia, M. (1980). Interrelationships between problem solving ability, right hemisphere processing facility and mathematical learning: Focus on learning problems in mathematics. Psychological Bulletin, 2, 53–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, D. F., & Denckla, M. B. (1969). Verbal paraphasia as a source of calculation disturbance. Archives of Neurology, 21, 96–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., Klebanov, P. K., & Duncan, G. J. (1996). Ethnic differences in children’s intelligence test scores: Role of economic deprivation, home environment, and maternal characteristics. Child Development, 67, 396–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bull, R., Johnston, R. S., & Roy, J. A. (1999). Exploring the roles of the visual-spatial sketch pad and central executive in children’s arithmetic skills: Views from cognition and developmental neuropsychology. Developmental Neuropsychology, 15, 421–442.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bull, R., & Scerif, G. (2001). Executive functioning as a predictor of children’s mathematics ability: Inhibition, switching, and working memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 19, 273–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J. (1991). How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psychology, 27, 703–722.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarren, S. B., Martin, D. C., & Townes, B. D. (1993). Academic achievement over a decade: A neuropsychological prediction study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 9, 161–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, A. J. (1998). The key math revised: A diagnostic inventory of essential mathematics manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Consensus Project (2002, August): Definition Consensus Project sponsored by the International Dyslexia Association and the National Institutes of Child Health and Human Development.

  • Dehaene, S., Spelke, E., Pinel, P., Stanescu, R., & Tsivkin, S. (1999). Sources of mathematical thinking: Behavioral and brain imaging evidence. Science, 284, 970–973.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. G. (1976). Rapid automatized naming (R.A.N.): Dyslexia differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14, 471–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donlan, C., & Hutt, E. (1991). Teaching maths to young children with language disorders. In K. Durkin & B. Shire (Eds.). Language in mathematical education (pp. 198–207). Philadelphia: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleishner, J. E. (1994). Diagnosis and assessment of mathematics learning disabilities. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.). Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities (pp. 441–458). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. M. (1985). Memory for verbal and nonverbal stimuli in learning disability subgroups: Analysis by selective reminding. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 40, 244–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Lyon, G. R., Foorman, B. R., Stuebing, K. K., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1998). Intelligence testing and the discrepancy model for children with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 13, 186–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Fletcher, J. M., Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 37–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Stuebing, K. K., Shaywitz, B. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (1994). Measurement of change: Assessing behavior over time and within a developmental context. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.). Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities (pp. 29–58). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Stuebing, K. K., Shaywitz, B. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (1996). Developmental lag versus deficit models of reading disability: A longitudinal, individual growth curves analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 3–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (1990). A componential analysis of an early learning deficit in mathematics. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 49, 363–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (1993). Mathematical disabilities: Cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 345–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C., Bow-Thomas, C. C., & Yao, Y. (1992). Counting knowledge and skill in cognitive addition: A comparison of normal and mathematically disabled children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 54, 372–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D., Hamson, C., & Hoard, M. (2001). Numerical and arithmetical cognition: A longitudinal study of process and concept deficits in children with learning disability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77, 236–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D., & Hoard, M. (2001). Numerical and arithmetical deficits in learning disabled children: Relation to dyscalculia and dyslexia. Aphasiology, 15, 635–647.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C., Hoard, M. K., & Hamson, C. O. (1999). Numerical and arithmetical cognition: Patterns of functions and deficits in children at risk for a mathematical disability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 74, 213–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ginsburg, H., & Baroody, A. (1990). Test of Early Mathematics Ability (2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross-Tsur, V., Manor, O., & Shalev, R. S. (1996). Developmental dyscalculia: Prevalence and demographic features. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 38, 25–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammill, D., Pearson, N., & Voress, J. (1993). Developmental test of visual perception (2nd. ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanich, L. B., Jordan, N. C., Kaplan, D., & Dick, J. (2001). Performance across different areas of mathematical cognition in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 615–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hecht, S. A., Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (2001). The relations between phonological processing abilities and emerging individual differences in mathematical computation skills: A longitudinal study from second to fifth grades. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 79, 192–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). (1997). Public Law 105–117, June 4, 1997.

  • Jordan, N. C., Hanich, L. B., & Kaplan, D. (2003). A longitudinal study of mathematical competencies in children with specific mathematics difficulties versus children with co-morbid mathematics and reading difficulties. Child Development, 74, 834–850.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamphaus, R. W., Petoskey, M. D., & Rowe, E. W. (2000). Current trends in psychological testing of children. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 31, 155–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kulak, A. G. (1993). Parallels between math and reading disability: Common issues and approaches. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 666–673.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Light, G. J., & DeFries, J. C. (1995). Comorbidity for reading and mathematics disabilities: Genetic and environmental etiologies. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 96–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1966). Higher cortical functions in man. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G. R. (1994). Critical issues in the measurement of learning disabilities. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.). Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities (pp. 3–13). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazzocco, M. (2001). Mathematics disability and MD subtypes: Evidence from studies of Turner syndrome, fragile X, and neurofibromatosis type 1. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 34, 520–533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Myers, G. F. (2002). Maximizing efficiency of enrollment for school-based educational research. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32, 1577–1587.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCloskey, M. (1992). Cognitive mechanisms in numerical processing: Evidence from acquired dyscalculia. Cognition, 44, 107–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 185–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wagner, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex frontal lobe tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, R. D., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M., Shaywitz, S. E., Lyon, G. R., Shankweiler, D. P., Katz, L., Francis, D. J., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1998). Subtypes of reading disability: Variability around a phonological core. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 347–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mullis, I. V. S., Marting, M. O., Gonzalez, E. J., Gregory, K. D., Garden, R. A., O’Connor, K. M., Chrostowski, S. J., & Smith, T. A. (2000). TIMSS 1999: International mathematics report. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS International Study Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramaa, S., & Gowramma, I. P. (2002). A systematic procedure for identifying and classifying children with dyscalculia among primary school children in India. Dyslexia, 8, 67–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rourke, B. P. (1993). Arithmetic disabilities, specific and otherwise: A neuropsychological perspective. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 214–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, R. L., & Ginsburg, H. P. (1984). Cognitive analysis of children’s mathematics difficulties. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 217–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sattler, J. M. (2001). Assessment of children: Cognitive applications (4th ed.). La Mesa, CA: Jerome Sattler Publisher, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Semrud-Clikeman, M., & Hynd, G. W. (1990). Right hemispheric dysfunction in nonverbal learning disabilities: Social, academic, and adaptive functioning in adults and children. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 196–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shalev, R. S., Auerbach, J., Manor, O., & Gross-Tsur, V. (2000). Developmental dyscalculia: Prevalence and prognosis. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 9, 58–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shalev, R., Manor, O., Amir, N., & Gross-Tsur, V. (1993). The acquisition of arithmetic in normal children: Assessment by a cognitive model of dyscalculia. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 35, 593–601.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shalev, R., Manor, O., Auerbach, J., & Gross-Tsur, V. (1998). Persistence of developmental dyscalculia: What counts? Results from a 3-year prospective follow-up study. The Journal of Pediatrics, 133, 358–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Share, D. L., Moffit, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1988). Factors associated with arithmetic-and-reading disability and specific arithmetic disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 313–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, S. E., Fletcher, J. M., Holahan, J. M., Shneider, A. E., Marchione, K. E., Stuebing, K. K., Francis, D. J., Pugh, K. R., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1999). Persistence of dyslexia: The Connecticut longitudinal study at adolescence. Pediatrics, 104, 1351–1359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaywitz, B. A., & Shaywitz, S. E. (1994). Measuring and analyzing change. In G. R. Lyon (Ed.). Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities (pp. 59–68). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, L. S. (1989). IQ is irrelevant to the definition of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 469–479.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, L. S., & Linder, B. A. (1984). Short-term memory processes in children with reading and arithmetic learning disabilities. Developmental Psychology, 20, 200–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silver, C. H., Pennett, D., Black, J. L., Fair, G. W., & Balise, R. R. (1999). Stability of arithmetic disability subtypes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 108–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strang, J., & Rourke, B. (1983). Arithmetic disability subtypes: The neuropsychological significance of specific arithmetical impairment in childhood. In B. Rourke (Ed.). Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: Essential subtype analysis (pp.167–183). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, H. L. (1993). Working memory in learning disability subgroups. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 56, 87–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teisl, J. T., Mazzocco, M. M. M., & Myers, G. (2001). The utility of kindergarten teacher ratings for predicting low academic achievement in first grade. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34, 286–293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorndike, R. L., Hagen, E. P., & Sattler, J. M. (1986). The Stanford Binet intelligence scale: Guide for administering and scoring (4th ed.). Chicago: The Riverside Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1994). Longitudinal studies of phonological processing and reading. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27, 276–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1997). The prevention and remediation of severe reading disabilities: Keeping the end in mind. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1, 217–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • von Aster, M. (2000). Developmental cognitive neuropsychology of number processing and calculation: Varieties of developmental dyscalculia. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 9, 41–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler abbreviated scale of intelligence. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, M. (1997). A provisional, integrative account of phonological naming speed deficits in dyslexia: Implications for diagnosis and intervention. In B. Blachman (Ed.). Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia (pp. 67–93). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, R., & Johnson, M. (1989). Woodcock-Johnson psycho-educational battery - Revised. Allen, TX: DLM Teaching Resources.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Kennedy Krieger Institute and Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland

    Michèle M. M. Mazzocco (Principal Investigator, Math Skills Development Project, Kennedy Krieger Institute and Associate Professor, Psychiatry)

  2. Kennedy Krieger Institute, USA

    Gwen F. Myers

Authors
  1. Michèle M. M. Mazzocco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gwen F. Myers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michèle M. M. Mazzocco.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Mazzocco, M.M.M., Myers, G.F. Complexities in identifying and defining mathematics learning disability in the primary school-age years. Ann. of Dyslexia 53, 218–253 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-003-0011-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-003-0011-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation