Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Genetics of smoking and depression

  • Review Paper
  • Published:
Human Genetics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Smoking and depression are significant public health problems with multiple etiological dimensions and outcomes. Although each condition is important by itself, they are important because they often potentiate each other. Consequently, it is also essential to understand the nature their relationship. This representative review focuses on the genetic etiology of the relationship in the context of reviewing first the epidemiology of depression and smoking, and then by exploring behavioral and molecular genetic studies, and other psychiatric and medical comorbidities. At this point, epidemiological evidence for a relationship between depression and smoking/nicotine dependence is compelling. Although behavioral genetic results differ somewhat by gender and in accordance with specific definitions of depression and smoking variables, recent studies show converging evidence for common genetic factors underlying the relationship, often in addition to non-shared environmental factors. The search for underlying genes and genetic mechanisms is at an early stage, but shows promising candidate genes and genetic approaches for future studies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ajdacic-Gross V, Landolt K, Angst J, Gamma A, Merikangas KR, Gutzwiller F, Rössler W (2009) Adult versus adolescent onset of smoking: How are mood disorders and other risk factors involved? Addiction 104:1411–1419

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aldrete E, Vega WA, Kolody B, Aguilar-Gaxiola S (2000) Lifetime prevalence of the risk factors for psychiatric disorders among Mexican migrant farmworkers in California. Am J Pub Health 90:608–614

    Google Scholar 

  • Anda RF, Williamson DF, Escobedo LG, Mast EE, Giovino GA, Remington PL (1990) Depression and the dynamics of smoking a national perspective. JAMA 264:1541–1545

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anguelova M, Benkelfat C, Turecki GA (2003) Systematic review of association studies investigating genes coding for serotonin receptors and the serotonin transporter: I. affective disorders. Mol Psychiatry 8:574–591

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Audrain-McGovern J, Rodriquez D, Kassel JD (2009) Adolescent smoking and depression: evidence for self-medication and peer smoking mediation. Addiction 104:1743–1756

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Audrain-McGovern J, Lerman C, Wileyto EP, Rodriquez D, Shields PG (2004) Interacting effects of genetic predisposition and depression on adolescent smoking progression. Am J Psych 161:1224–1230

    Google Scholar 

  • Audrain-McGovern J, Rodriquez D, Rogers K, Cuevas J (2011) Declining alternative reinforcers link depression to young adult smoking. Addiction 106:178–187

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Audrain-McGovern J, Rodriquez D, Rogers K, Cuevas J, Sass J, Riley T (2012) Reward expectations lead to smoking uptake among depressed adolescents. Drug Alcohol Depend 120:181–189

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Avenevoli S, Merikangas KR (2003) Familial influences on adolescent smoking. Addiction 98:1–20

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes PJ, Celli BR (2009) Systemic manifestations and comorbidities of COPD. Eur Resp J 33:1165–1185

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Belmaker RH, Agam G (2008) Major depressive disorder. NEJM 358:55–68

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Berlin I, Covey LS (2006) Pre-cessation depressive mood predicts failure to quit smoking: the role of coping and personality traits. Addiction 101:1814–1821

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berlin I, Covey LS, Glassman AH (2009) Smoking and depression: a co-morbidity. J Dual Diagn 5:149–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Beuten J, Payne TJ, Ma JZ, Li MD (2006) Significant association of catcechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) haplotypes with nicotine dependence in male and female smokers of two ethnic populations. Neuropsychopharm 31:675–684

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bierut LJ, Dinwiddie SH, Begleiter H, Crowe RR, Hesselbrock V, Nurnberger JI, Porjesz B, Schuckit MA, Reich T (1998) Familial transmission of substance dependence: alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, and habitual smoking: a report from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism. Arch Gen Psych 55:982–988

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boardman JD, Saint Onge JM, Haberstick BC, Timberlake DS, Hewitt JK (2008) Do schools moderate the genetic determinants of smoking? Behav Genet 38:234–246

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boden JM, Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ (2010) Cigarette smoking and depression: tests of causal linkages using a longitudinal birth cohort. Brit J Psych 196:440–446

    Google Scholar 

  • Borooah VK (2009) Gender differences in the incidence of depression and anxiety: econometric evidence from the USA. J Happiness Stud 11:663–682

    Google Scholar 

  • Breslau N, Peterson EL, Schultz LR, Chilcoat HD, Andreski P (1998) Major depression and stages of smoking a longitudinal investigation. Arch Gen Psych 55:161–166

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brody CL, Hamer DH, Haaga DA (2005) Depression vulnerability, cigarette smoking, and the serotonin transporter gene. Addict Behav 30:557–566

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brody AL, Mandelkern MA, London ED, Olmstead RE, Farahi J, Scheibal D, Jou J, Allen V, Tiongson E, Chefer SI, Koren AO, Mukhin AG (2006) Cigarette smoking saturates brain alpha 4 beta 2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Arch Gen Psych 63:907–915

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bronisch T, Hofler M, Lieb R (2008) Smoking predicts suicidality: findings from a prospective community study. J Affect Dis 108:135–145

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carmelli D, Swan GE, Robinette D, Fabsitz R (1992) Genetic influence on smoking: a study of male twins. NEJM 327:829–833

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control (2010) Line graph of trends in current cigarette smoking by high school students and adults—United States, 1965–2010. National Health Interview Survey, 1965–2009. http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/tables/trends/cig_smoking/index_htm

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2003) Cigarette smoking-attributable morbidity-United States, 2000. MMWR 52:842–844

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2005) Annual smoking-attributable mortality, years of potential life lost, and productivity losses–—United States, 1997–2001. MMWR 54:625–628

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2009) Cigarette smoking among adults and trends in smoking cessation—United States, 2008. MMWR 58:1227–1232

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke DE, Eaton WW, Petronis KR, Ko JY, Chatterjee A, Anthony JC (2010) Increased risk of suicidal ideation in smokers and former smokers compared to never smokers: evidence from the Baltimore ECA follow-up study. Suicide Life Threat Behav 40:307–318

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colman I, Ataullahjan A (2010) Life course perspectives on the epidemiology of depression. Le Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie 55:622–632

    Google Scholar 

  • Covey LS, Glassman AH, Stetner F (1990) Depression and depressive symptoms in smoking cessation. Comp Psych 31:350–354

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Covey LS, Glassman AH, Stetner F (1997) Major depression following smoking cessation. Am J Psych 154:263–265

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crone MR, Reijneveld SA (2007) The association of behavioural and emotional problems with tobacco use in adolescence. Addict Behav 32:1692–1698

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diaz FJ, James D, Botts S, Maw L, Susce MT, de Leon J (2009) Tobacco smoking behaviors in bipolar disorder: a comparison of the general population, schizophrenia, and major depression. Bipolar Dis 11:154–165

    Google Scholar 

  • Dierker LC, Avenevoli S, Stolar M, Merikangas KR (2002) Smoking and depression: an examination of mechanisms of comorbidity. Am J Psych 159:947–953

    Google Scholar 

  • Dieker L, Jianping H, Kalaydjian A, Swedsen J, Degenhardt L, Glantz M, Conway K, Anthony J, Chiu WT, Sampson NA, Kessler R, Merikangas K (2008) The importance of timing of transitions for risk of regular smoking and nicotine dependence. Ann Behav Med 36:87–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodd S, Brnabic AJ, Berk L, Fitzgerald PB, de Castella AR, Filia S, Filia K, Kelin K, Smith M, Montgomery W, Kulkarni J, Berk M (2010) A prospective study of the impact of smoking on outcomes in bipolar and schizoaffective disorder. Comp Psych 51:504–509

    Google Scholar 

  • Druss BG, Rosenheck RA, Sledge WH (2000) Health and disability costs of depressive illness in a major U.S. corporation. Am J Psych 157:1274–1278

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan TE, Duncan SC, Hops H (1996) The role of parents and older siblings in predicting adolescent substance use: modeling development via structural equation latent growth methodology. J Fam Psychol 10:158–172

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards AC, Maes HH, Pedersen NL, Kendler KS (2011) A population-based twin study of the genetic and environmental relationship of major depression, regular tobacco use and nicotine dependence. Psychol Med 41:395–405

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson DM, Goodwin RD, Horwood LJ (2003) Major depression and cigarette smoking: results of a 21-year longitudinal study. Psychol Med 33:1357–1367

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher C, Peto R (1977) The natural history of chronic airflow obstruction. Brit Med J 1:1645–1648

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Furlong RA, Ho L, Walsh C, Rubinsztein JS, Jain S, Paykel ES, Easton DF, Rubinsztein DC (1998) Analysis and meta-analysis of two serotonin transporter gene polymorphisms in bipolar and unipolar affective disorders. Am J Med Gen 81:58–63

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gelernter J, Yu Y, Weiss R, Brady K, Panhuysen C, Yang BZ, Kranzler HR, Farrer L (2006) Haplotype spanning TTC12 and ANKK1, flanked by the DRD2 and NCAM1 loci, is strongly associated to nicotine dependence in two distinct American populations. Hum Mol Gen 15:3498–3507

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glassman AH, Helzer JE, Covey LS, Cottler LB, Stetner F, Tipp JE, Johnson J (1990) Smoking, smoking cessation, and major depression. JAMA 264:1546–1549

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glassman AH (1993) Cigarette smoking: implications for psychiatric illness. Am J Psych 150:546–553

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glassman AH, Covey LS, Stetner F, Rivelli S (2001) Smoking cessation and the course of major depression: a follow-up study. Lancet 357:1929–1932

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glatt SJ, Everall IP, Kremen WS, Corbeil J, Sasik R, Khanlou N, Han M, Liew CC, Tsuang MT (2005) Comparative gene expression analysis of blood and brain provides concurrent validation of SELENBP1 up-regulation in schizophrenia. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 102:15533–15538

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg PE, Kessler RC, Birnbaum HG, Leong SA, Lowe SW, Berglund PA, Corey-Lisle PK (2003) The economic burden of depression in the United States: How did it change between 1990 and 2003? J Clin Psych 64:1465–1475

    Google Scholar 

  • Heath AC, Martin NG (1993) Genetic models for the natural history of smoking: evidence for a genetic influence on smoking persistence. Addict Behav 18:19–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heatherton TF, Kozlowski LT, Frecker RC, Fagerstrom KO (1991) The Fagerstrom test for nicotine dependence: a revision of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire. Brit J Addict 86:1119–1127

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hitchman SC, Fong GT (2011) Gender empowerment and female-to-male smoking prevalence ratios. Bull WHO 89:195–202

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hitsman B, Borrelli B, McChargue DE, Spring B, Niaura R (2003) History of depression and smoking cessation outcome: a meta-analysis. J Con Clin Psychol 71:657–663

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes JR, Brandon TH (2003) A softer view of hardening. Nicotine Tob Res 5:961–962

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ishii T, Wakabayashi R, Kurosaki H, Gemma A, Kida K (2011) Association of serotonin transporter gene variation with smoking, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and its depressive symptoms. J Hum Gen 56:41–46

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jemal A, Thun M, Yu XQ, Hartman AM, Cokkinides V, Center MM, Ross H, Ward EM (2011) Changes in smoking prevalence among US adults by state and region: estimates from the tobacco use supplement to the current population survey. BMC Pub Health 11:512–522

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson EO, Rhee SH, Chase GA, Breslau N (2004) Comorbidity of depression with levels of smoking: an exploration of the shared familial risk hypothesis. Nicotine Tob Res 6:1029–1038

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keel PK, Klump KL, Miller KB, McGue M, Iacono WG (2005) Shared transmission of eating disorders and anxiety disorders. Int J Eat Dis 38:99–105

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Neale MC, Kessler RC, Heath AC, Eaves LJ (1992) A population-based twin study of major depression in women: the impact of varying definitions of illness. Arch Gen Psych 49:257–266

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Neale MC, MacLean CJ, Heath AC, Eaves LJ, Kessler RC (1993) Smoking and major depression: a causal analysis. Arch Gen Psych 50:36–43

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Gatz M, Gardner CO, Pedersen NL (2006) A Swedish national twin study of lifetime major depression. Am J Psych 163:109–114

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendler KS, Gardner CO, Gatz M, Pedersen NL (2007) The sources of co-morbidity between major depression and generalized anxiety disorder in a Swedish national twin sample. Psychol Med 37:453–462

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Koretz D, Merikangas KR, Rush AJ, Walters EE, Wang PS (2003) The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA 289:3095–3105

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE (2005a) Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Arch Gen Psych 62:593–602

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Merikangas KR, Walters EE (2005b) Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Arch Gen Psych 62:617–627

    Google Scholar 

  • Kiyohara C, Yoshimasu K (2010) Association between major depressive disorder and a functional polymorphism of the 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) transporter gene: a meta-analysis. Psych Gen 20:49–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Klungsoyr O, Nygard JF, Sorensen T, Sandanger I (2006) Cigarette smoking and incidence of first depressive episode: an 11-year, population-based follow-up study. Am J Epidemiol 163:421–432

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korhonen T, Broms U, Varjonen J, Romanov K, Koskenvuo M, Kinnunen T, Kaprio J (2007) Smoking behaviour as a predictor of depression among Finnish men and women: a prospective cohort study of adult twins. Psych Med 37:705–715

    Google Scholar 

  • Korhonen T, Koivumaa-Honkanen H, Varjonen J, Broms U, Koskenvuo M, Kaprio J (2011) Cigarette smoking and dimensions of depressive symptoms: longitudinal analysis among Finnish male and female twins. Nicotine Tob Res 13:261–272

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lasky-Su JA, Faraone SV, Glatt SJ, Tsuang MT (2005) Meta-analysis of the association between two polymorphisms in the serotonin transporter gene and affective disorders. Am J Med Gen B Neuropsychiatr Genet 133:110–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Lasser K, Boyd JW, Woolhandler S, Himmelstein DU, McCormick D, Bor DH (2000) Smoking and mental illness: a population-based prevalence study. JAMA 284:2606–2610

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lerman C, Caporaso NE, Audrain J, Main D, Boyd NR, Shields PG (2000) Interacting effects of the serotonin transporter gene and neuroticism in smoking practices and nicotine dependence. Mol Psych 5:189–192

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lerman C, Caporaso N, Main D, Audrain J, Boyd NR, Bowman ED, Shields PG (1998) Depression and self-medication with nicotine: the modifying influence of the dopamine D4 receptor gene. Health Psychol 17:56–62

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lessov-Schlaggar CN, Pergadia ML, Khroyan TV, Swan GE (2008) Genetics of nicotine dependence and pharmacotherapy. Biochem Pharmacol 75:178–195

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li MD, Beuten J, Ma JZ, Payne TJ, Lou XY, Garcia V, Duenes AS, Crews KM, Elston RC (2005) Ethnic and gender-specific association of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha4 subunit gene (CHRNA4) with nicotine dependence. Hum Mol Genet 14:1211–1219

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Li X, Rainnie DG, McCarley RW, Greene RW (1998) Presynaptic nicotinic receptors facilitate monoaminergic transmission. J Neurosci 18:1904–1912

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez-Leon S, Janssens AC, Gonzalez-Zuloeta Ladd AM, Del-Favero J, Claes SJ, Oostra BA, van Duijn CM (2008) Meta-analyses of genetic studies on major depressive disorder. Mol Psych 13:772–785

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lou XY, Ma JZ, Payne TJ, Beuten J, Crew KM, Li MD (2006) Gene-based analysis suggests association of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor beta1 subunit (CHRNB1) and M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (CHRM1) with vulnerability for nicotine dependence. Hum Genet 120:381–389

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons MJ, Bar JL, Kremen WS, Toomey R, Eisen SA, Goldberg J, Faraone SV, Tsuang MT (2002) Nicotine and familial vulnerability to schizophrenia: a discordant twin study. J Abnormal Psychol 111:687–693

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons MJ, Hitsman B, Xian H, Panizzon MS, Jerskey BA, Santangelo S, Grant MD, Rende R, Eisen S, Eaves L, Tsuang MT (2008) A twin study of smoking, nicotine dependence, and major depression in men. Nicotine Tob Res 10:97–108

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ma JZ, Beuten J, Payne TJ, Dupont RT, Elston RC, Li MD (2005) Haplotype analysis indicates an association between the DOPA decarboxylase (DDC) gene and nicotine dependence. Hum Mol Genet 14:1691–1698

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Madden PA, Heath AC (2002) Shared genetic vulnerability in alcohol and cigarette use and dependence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 26:1919–1921

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maes HH, Neale MC, Kendler KS, Martin NG, Heath AC, Eaves LJ (2006) Genetic and cultural transmission of smoking initiation: an extended twin kinship model. Behav Genet 36:795–808

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCaffery JM, Papandonatos GD, Stanton C, Lloyd-Richardson EE, Niaura R (2008) Depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking in twins from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Health Psychol 27(3 Suppl):S207–S215

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGuffin P, Cohen S, Knight J (2007) Homing in on depression genes. Am J Psych 164:195–197

    Google Scholar 

  • McKenzie M, Olsson CA, Jorm AF, Romaniuk H, Patton GC (2010) Association of adolescent symptoms of depression and anxiety with daily smoking and nicotine dependence in young adulthood: findings from a 10-year longitudinal study. Addiction 105:1652–1659

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mennin DS, McLaughlin KA, Flanagan TJ (2009) Emotion regulation deficits in generalized anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, and their re-occurrence. J Anxiety Dis 23:866–871

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezulis AH, Funasaki KS, Charbonneau AM, Hyde JS (2010) Gender differences in the cognitive vulnerability-stress model of depression in the transition to adolescence. Cog Ther Res 34:501–513

    Google Scholar 

  • Mineur YS, Picciotto MR (2009) Biological basis for the co-morbidity between smoking and mood disorders. J Dual Diagn 5:122–130

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy JM, Horton NJ, Monson RR, Laird NM, Sobol AM, Leighton AH (2003) Cigarette smoking in relation to depression: historical trends from the Stirling County study. Am J Psych 160:1663–1669

    Google Scholar 

  • Neale MC, Harvey E, Maes HH, Sullivan PF, Kendler KS (2006) Extensions to the modeling of initiation and progression: applications to substance use and abuse. Behav Genet 36:507–524

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pasco JA, Williams LJ, Jacka FN, Ng F, Henry MJ, Nicholson GC, Kotowicz MA, Berk M (2008) Tobacco smoking as a risk factor for major depressive disorder: population-based study. Brit J Psychiatry 193:322–326

    Google Scholar 

  • Patton GC, Hibbert M, Rosier MJ, Carlin JB, Caust J, Bowes G (1996) Is smoking associated with depression and anxiety in teenagers? Am J Pub Health 86:225–230

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Patton GC, Carlin JB, Coffey C, Wolfe R, Hibbert M, Bowes G (1998) Depression, anxiety, and smoking initiation: a prospective study over 3 years. Am J Pub Health 88:1518–1522

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pence BW, Miller WC, Whetten K, Eron JJ, Gaynes BN (2006) Prevalence of DSM-IV-defined mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders in an HIV clinic in the Southeastern United States. J Acq Imm Def Syn 42:298–306

    Google Scholar 

  • Pergadia ML, Glowinski AL, Wray NR, Agrawal A, Saccone SF, Loukola A, Broms U, Korhonen T, Pennix BW, Grant JD, Nelson EC, Henders AK, Schrage AJ, Chou YL, Keskitalo-Vuokko K, Zhu Q, Gordon SD, Vink JM, de Geus EJ, Macgregor S, Liu JZ, Willemsen G, Medland SE, Boomsma DI, Montgomery GW, Rice JP, Goate AM, Heath AC, Kaprio J, Martin NG, Madden PA (2011) A 3p26-3p25 genetic linkage finding for DSM-IV major depression in heavy smoking families. Am J Psych 168:848–852

    Google Scholar 

  • Quaak M, van Schayck CP, Knaapen AM, van Schooten FJ (2009) Genetic variation as a predictor of smoking cessation success. A promising preventive and intervention tool for chronic respiratory diseases? Eur Resp J 33:468–480

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rao M (2008) Depression in the physically ill. Prim Psych 15:44–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Romans S, Cohen M, Forte T (2010) Rates of depression and anxiety in urban and rural Canada. Soc Psych Psychiatric Epidemiol 46:567–575

    Google Scholar 

  • Sebat J, Levy DL, McCarthy SE (2009) Rare structural variants in schizophrenia: one disorder, multiple mutations; one mutation, multiple disorders. Trends Gen 25:528–535

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Serretti A, Calati R, Mandelli L, De Ronchi D (2007a) Serotonin transporter gene variants and behavior: a comprehensive review. Curr Drug Targets 7:1659–1669

    Google Scholar 

  • Serretti A, Kato M, De Ronchi D, Kinoshita T (2007b) Meta-analysis of serotonin transporter gene promoter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) association with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor efficacy in depressed patients. Mol Psych 12:247–257

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shanahan MJ, Hofer SM (2005) Social context in gene-environment interactions: retrospect and prospect. J Gerontol Ser B 60:65–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Sihvola E, Rose RJ, Dick DM, Pulkkinen L, Marttunen M, Kaprio J (2008) Early onset depressive disorders predict the use of addictive substances in adolescence: a prospective study of adolescent Finnish twins. Addiction 103:2045–2053

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slomkowski C, Rende R, Novak S, Lloyd-Richardson E, Niaura R (2005) Sibling effects on smoking in adolescence: evidence for social influence from a genetically informative design. Addiction 100:430–438

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stalling MC, Hewitt JK, Beresford T, Heath AC, Eaves LJ (1999) A twin study of drinking and smoking onset and latencies from first use to regular use. Behav Genet 29:409–421

    Google Scholar 

  • Stapleton JA, Sutherland G, O’Gara C, Spirling LI, Ball D (2011) Association between DRD2/ANKK1 Taq1A genotypes, depression and smoking cessation with nicotine replacement therapy. Pharmacogenet Genomics 21:447–453

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stewart DS, Jones GN, Minor KS (2011) Smoking, depression, and gender in low-income African-Americans with HIV/AIDS. Behav Med 37:77–80

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swan GE, Carmelli D, Cardon LR (1996) The consumption of tobacco, alcohol, and coffee in Caucasian male twins: a multivariate genetic analysis. J Subst Abuse 8:19–31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan PF, Kendler KS (1999) The genetic epidemiology of smoking. Nicotine Tob Res 1:S51–S57

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tapper AR, McKinney SL, Nashmi R, Schwarz J, Deshpande P, Labarca C, Whiteaker P, Marks MJ, Collins AC, Lester HA (2004) Nicotine activation of alpha4 receptors: sufficient for reward, tolerance, and sensitization. Science 306:1029–1032

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Timberlake DS, Rhee SH, Haberstick BC, Hopfer C, Ehringer M, Lessem JM, Smolen A, Hewitt J (2006) The moderating effects of religiosity on the genetic and environmental determinants of smoking initiation. Nicotine Tob Res 8:123–133

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • True WR, Heath AC, Scherrer JF, Waterman B, Goldberg J, Lin N, Eisen SA, Lyons MJ, Tsuang MT (1997) Genetic and environmental contributions to smoking. Addiction 92:1277–1288

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsoh JY, Humfleet GL, Muñoz RF, Reus VI, Hartz DT, Hall SM (2000) Development of major depression after treatment for smoking cessation. Am J Psych 157:368–374

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Uddin M, Koene KC, de los Santos R, Bakshis E, Aiello AE, Galea S (2010) Gender differences in the genetic and environmental determinants of adolescent depression. Dep Anxiety 27:658–666

    Google Scholar 

  • Uhl GR, Liu QR, Drgon T, Johnson C, Walther D, Rose JE (2007) Molecular genetics of nicotine dependence and abstinence: whole genome association using 520,000 SNPs. BMC Genet 3:10

    Google Scholar 

  • Walters CL, Brown S, Changeux JP, Martin B, Damaj MI (2006) The beta2 but not alpha7 subunit of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is required for nicotine-conditioned place preference in mice. Psychopharmacol 184:339–344

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang PS, Lane M, Olfson M, Pincus HA, Wells KB, Kessler RC (2005) Twelve month use of mental health services in the United States. Arch Gen Psych 62:629–640

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2008) http://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower2008/en/index.html

  • Yu Y, Panhuysen C, Kranzler HR, Hesselbrock V, Rounsaville B, Weiss R, Brady K, Farrer LA, Gelertner J (2006) Intronic variants in the dopa decarboxylase (DDC) gene are associated with smoking behavior in European-Americans and African-Americans. Hum Mol Gen 15:2192–2199

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zelman DC, Brandon TH, Jorenby DE, Baker TB (1992) Measures of affect and nicotine dependence predict differential response to smoking cessation treatments. J Consult Clin Psychol 60:943–952

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to report.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, Center for Behavioral Genomics, University of California, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA, 92039, USA

    Ming T. Tsuang

  2. Institute of Genomic Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA

    Ming T. Tsuang

  3. Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA

    Ming T. Tsuang

  4. Massachusetts Mental Health Center Public Psychiatry Division, Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA

    Tracee Francis, Kyle Minor & William S. Stone

  5. Department of Psychology, Suffolk University, Boston, MA, USA

    Alison Thomas

Authors
  1. Ming T. Tsuang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tracee Francis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kyle Minor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Alison Thomas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. William S. Stone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ming T. Tsuang.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Tsuang, M.T., Francis, T., Minor, K. et al. Genetics of smoking and depression. Hum Genet 131, 905–915 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-012-1170-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-012-1170-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation