Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Asperger syndrome

  • REVIEW
  • Published:
European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Asperger syndrome (AS) is a chronic neurodevelopmental disorder of social interaction, communication, and a restricted range of behaviors or interests. Although not generally associated with intellectual disability, the severe social disability and, in many cases, associated mental health and other medical problems, result in disability throughout life. The diagnosis is often delayed, sometimes into adulthood, which is unfortunate because there are now a range of interventions available, and the current evidence supports intervention starting as early in childhood as possible. The aim of this review is to present a description of AS, an up to date synopsis of the literature pertaining to its etiology, co-morbidity and intervention options, and a discussion of current nosological controversies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edn. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  2. Anneren G, Dahl N, Uddenfeldt U, Janols LO (1995) Asperger syndrome in a boy with a balanced de novo translocation: t(17;19)(p13.3;p11) [letter]. Am J Med Genet 56:330–331

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Asperger H (1944) Die “autistichen Psychopathen” im Kindersalter. Archive fur psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 117:76–136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Bailey A, Le Couteur A, Gottesman I, Bolton P (1995) Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: evidence from a British twin study. Psychol Med 25:63–77

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Baron-Cohen S (1995) Mindblindness. MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  6. Baron-Cohen S, Hammer J (1997) Is autism an extreme form of the “male brain”? Adv Infancy Res 11:193–217

    Google Scholar 

  7. Baron-Cohen S, Scahill VL, Izaguirre J, Hornsey H, Robertson MM (1999) The prevalence of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome in children and adolescents with autism: a large scale study. Psychol Med 29:1151–1159

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Skinner R, Martin J, Clubley E (2001) The autism-spectrum quotient (AQ): evidence from Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. J Autism Dev Disord 31:5–17 (erratum appears in J Autism Dev Disord 2001 Dec;31(6):603)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Bauman M, Kemper TL (1985) Histoanatomic observations of the brain in early infantile autism. Neurology 35:866–874

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Bauman ML (1996) Brief report: neuroanatomic observations of the brain in pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 26:199–203

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Bejerot S (2007) An autistic dimension: a proposed subtype of obsessive–compulsive disorder. Autism 11:101–110

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Berument SK, Rutter M, Lord C, Pickles A, Bailey A (1999) Autism screening questionnaire: diagnostic validity. Br J Psychiatry 175:444–451

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Bolton P, Macdonald H, Pickles A, Rios P et al (1994) A case-control family history study of autism. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 35:877–900

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Bradford Y, Haines J, Hutcheson H, Gardiner M, Braun T, Sheffield V, Cassavant T, Huang W, Wang K, Vieland V, Folstein S, Santangelo S, Piven J (2001) Incorporating language phenotypes strengthens evidence of linkage to autism. Am J Med Genet 105:539–547

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Buxbaum JD, Silverman JM, Smith CJ, Kilifarski M, Reichert J, Hollander E, Lawlor BA, Fitzgerald M, Greenberg DA, Davis KL (2001) Evidence for a susceptibility gene for autism on chromosome 2 and for genetic heterogeneity. Am J Hum Genet 68:1514–1520 (erratum appears in Am J Hum Genet 2001 Aug;69(2):470)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. CLSA (1999) An autosomal genomic screen for autism. Am J Med Genet (Neuropsychiatr Genet) 88:609–615

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Cook EH Jr, Rowlett R, Jaselskis C, Leventhal BL (1992) Fluoxetine treatment of children and adults with autistic disorder and mental retardation. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31:739–745

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Courchesne E, Townsend J, Saitoh O (1994) The brain in infantile autism: posterior fossa structures are abnormal. Neurology 44:214–223

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Courchesne E, Yeung-Courchesne R, Press GA, Hesselink JR, Jernigan TL (1988) Hypoplasia of cerebellar vermal lobules VI and VII in autism. N Engl J Med 318:1349–1354

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Denckla M (1983) The neuropsychology of social–emotional learning disabilities. Arch Neurol 40:461–462

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Ehlers S, Gillberg C (1993) The epidemiology of Asperger syndrome. A total population study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 34:1327–1350

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Ehlers S, Gillberg C, Wing L (1999) A screening questionnaire for Asperger syndrome and other high-functioning autism spectrum disorders in school age children. J Autism Dev Disord 29:129–141

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Filipek P (2005) Medical aspects of autism. In: Volkmar FR, Klin A, Paul R, Cohen DJ (eds) Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 534–578

    Google Scholar 

  24. Fletcher PC, Happe F, Frith U, Baker SC, Dolan RJ, Frackowiak RS, Frith CD (1995) Other minds in the brain: a functional imaging study of “theory of mind” in story comprehension. Cognition 57:109–128

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Folstein S, Rutter M (1977) Infantile autism: a genetic study of 21 twin pairs. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 18:297–321

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Fombonne E (2005) Epidemiological studies of pervasive developmental disorders. In: Volkmar FR, Klin A, Paul R, Cohen DJ (eds) Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 42–69

    Google Scholar 

  27. Fombonne E, Tidmarsh L (2003) Epidemiologic data on Asperger disorder. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 12:15–21

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Frith U (1991) Autism and Asperger’s syndrome. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  29. Ghaziuddin M (2008) Defining the behavioral phenotype of Asperger syndrome. J Autism Dev Disord 38:138–142

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Ghaziuddin M (2005) A family history study of Asperger syndrome. J Autism Dev Disord 35:177–182

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Ghaziuddin M, Ghaziuddin N, Greden J (2002) Depression in persons with autism: implications for research and clinical care. J Autism Dev Disord 32:299–306

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Ghaziuddin M, Tsai L, Ghaziuddin N (1991) Brief report: violence in Asperger syndrome, a critique. J Autism Dev Disord 21:349–354

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Ghaziuddin M, Tsai L, Ghaziuddin N (1991) Fluoxetine in autism with depression (letter; comment). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 30:508–509

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Ghaziuddin M, Weidmer-Mikhail E, Ghaziuddin N (1998) Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome: a preliminary report. J Intellect Disabil Res 42:279–283

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Gillberg C, Gillberg C, Rastam M, Wentz E (2001) The Asperger syndrome (and high-functioning autism) diagnostic interview (ASDI): a preliminary study of a new structured clinical interview. Autism 5:57–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Gilliam J (2000) Gilliam Asperger’s disorder scale. PRO-ED, Austin

    Google Scholar 

  37. Happe F (2005) The weak central coherence account of autism. In: Volkmar F, Paul R, Klin A, Donald C (eds) Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 640–649

    Google Scholar 

  38. Happe F, Ehlers S, Fletcher P, Frith U, Johansson M, Gillberg C, Dolan R, Frackowiak R, Frith C (1996) ‘Theory of mind’ in the brain. Evidence from a PET scan study of Asperger syndrome. Neuroreport 8:197–201

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Hazell P (2007) Drug therapy for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-like symptoms in autistic disorder. J Paediatr Child Health 43:19–24

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Hill EL (2004) Evaluating the theory of executive dysfunction in autism. Dev Rev 24:189–233

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Hippler K, Klicpera C (2003) A retrospective analysis of the clinical case records of ‘autistic psychopaths’ diagnosed by Hans Asperger and his team at the University Children’s Hospital, Vienna. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 358:291–301

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Howlin P (2000) Outcome in adult life for more able individuals with autism or Asperger syndrome. Autism 4:63–83

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. International Molecular Genetic Study of Autism Consortium (2001) A genomewide screen for autism: strong evidence for linkage to chromosomes 2q, 7q, and 16p. Am J Hum Genet 69:570–581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Kanner L (1943) Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nerv Child 2:217–250

    Google Scholar 

  45. Klin A, McPartland J, Volkmar FR (2005) Asperger syndrome. In: Volkmar FR, Klin A, Paul R, Cohen DJ (eds) Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 88–125

    Google Scholar 

  46. Klin A, Pauls D, Schultz R, Volkmar F (2005) Three diagnostic approaches to Asperger syndrome: implications for research. J Autism Dev Disord 35:221–234

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Klin A, Volkmar FR (1997) Asperger’s syndrome. In: Cohen DJ, Volkmar FR (eds) Handbook of autism & pervasive developmental disorders. Wiley, New York, pp 94–122

    Google Scholar 

  48. Klin A, Volkmar FR (2000) Treatment and intervention guidelines for individuals with Asperger syndrome. In: Klin A, Volkmar FR (eds) Asperger syndrome. The Guilford Press, New York, pp 340–366

    Google Scholar 

  49. Kwon H, Ow A, Pedatella K, Lotspeich L, Reiss A (2004) Voxel-based morphometry elucidates structural neuroanatomy of high-functioning autism and Asperger syndrome. Dev Med Child Neurol 46:760–764

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Lainhart JE (1999) Psychiatric problems in individulas with autism, their parents and siblings. Int Rev Psychiatry 11:278–298

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Lainhart JE, Piven J, Wzorek M, Landa R, Santangelo SL, Coon H, Folstein SE (1997) Macrocephaly in children and adults with autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36:282–290

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Leekam S, Libby S, Wing L, Gould J, Gillberg C (2000) Comparison of ICD-10 and Gillberg’s criteria for Asperger syndrome. Autism 4:11–28

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Lincoln A, Courchesne E, Allen M, Hanson E, Ene M (1998) Neurobiology of Asperger syndrome: seven case studies and quantitative magnetic resonance imaging findings. In: Schopler E, Mesibov GB, Kunc LJ (eds) Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism? Plenum, New York, pp 145–166

    Google Scholar 

  54. Lord C, Risi S, Lambrecht L, Cook EH, Leventhal BL, DiLavore PC, Pickles A, Rutter M (2000) The autism diagnostic observation schedule—generic: a standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. J Autism Dev Disord 30:205–223

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Lord C, Rutter M, Le Couteur A (1994) Autism diagnostic interview—revised: a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 24:659–685

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Martin A, Koenig K, Anderson GM, Scahill L (2003) Low-dose fluvoxamine treatment of children and adolescents with pervasive developmental disorders: a prospective, open-label study. J Autism Dev Disord 33:77–85

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Mawhood L, Howlin P, Rutter M (2000) Autism and developmental receptive language disorder—a comparative follow-up in early adult life. I: Cognitive and language outcomes. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 41:547–559

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Mayes SD, Calhoun SL, Crites DL (2001) Does DSM-IV Asperger’s disorder exist? J Abnorm Child Psychol 29:263–271

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. McDougle CJ, Brodkin ES, Naylor ST, Carlson DC, Cohen DJ, Price LH (1998) Sertraline in adults with pervasive developmental disorders: A prospective open-label investigation. J Clin Psychopharmacol 18:62–66

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. McDougle CJ, Naylor ST, Cohen DJ, Volkmar FR, Heninger GR, Price LH (1996) A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of fluvoxamine in adults with autistic disorder (see comments). Arch Gen Psychiatry 53:1001–1008

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Miller JN, Ozonoff S (2000) The external validity of Asperger disorder: lack of evidence from the domain of neuropsychology. J Abnorm Psychol 109:227–238

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Mundy P (2003) The neural basis of social impairments in autism: the role of the dorsal medial–frontal cortex and anterior cingulate system. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 44:793–809

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Murphy D (2002) Asperger’s Syndrome: forensic considerations. Forensic Update 68:10–16

    Google Scholar 

  64. Myles BS (2001) Asperger syndrome diagnostic scale. PRO-ED, Austin

    Google Scholar 

  65. Namerow LB, Thomas P, Bostic JQ, Prince J, Monuteaux MC (2003) Use of citalopram in pervasive developmental disorders. J Dev Behav Pediatr 24:104–108

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Paul R (2003) Promoting social communication in high functioning individuals with autistic spectrum disorders. Child Adoles Psychiatr Clin N Am 12:87–106 (vi–vii)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Pericak-Vance MA (2003) The genetics of autistic disorder. In: Plomin R, DeFries JC et al (eds) Behavioral genetics in the postgenomic era. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 267–288

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  68. Posey DJ, Guenin KD, Kohn AE, Swiezy NB, McDougle CJ (2001) A naturalistic open-label study of mirtazapine in autistic and other pervasive developmental disorders. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 11:267–277

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Research Units on Pediatric Psychopharmacology Autism Network (2002) Risperidine in children with autism and serious behavioral problems. N Eng J Med 347:314–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Research Units on Pediatric Psychopharmacology Autism Network (2005) Randomized, controlled, crossover trial of methylphenidate in pervasive developmental disorders with hyperactivity. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62:1266–1274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Riddle MA, Bernstein GA, Cook EH, Leonard HL, March JS, Swanson JM (1999) Anxiolytics, adrenergic agents, and naltrexone. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38:546–556

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Rinehart NJ, Bradshaw JL, Tonge BJ, Brereton AV, Bellgrove MA (2002) A neurobehavioral examination of individuals with high-functioning autism and Asperger disorder using a fronto-striatal model of dysfunction. Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev 1:164–177

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Ring H, Woodbury-Smith M, Watson P, Wheelwright S, Baron-Cohen S (2008) Clinical heterogeneity among people with high functioning autism spectrum conditions evidence favouring a continuous severity gradient. Behav Brain Funct 4:11

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Ring HA, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, Williams SC, Brammer M, Andrew C, Bullmore ET (1999) Cerebral correlates of preserved cognitive skills in autism: a MRI study of embedded figures task performance. Brain 122:1305–1315

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Rourke BP (1987) Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: the final common pathway of white-matter disease/dysfunction? Clin Neuropsychol 1:209–234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Rourke BP, Tsatsanis KD (2000) Nonverbal learning disabilities and Asperger syndrome. In: Klin A, Volkmar FR (eds) Asperger syndrome. The Guilford Press, New York, pp 231–253

    Google Scholar 

  77. Scahill L, Martin A (2005) Psychopharmacology. In: Volkmar F, Paul R, Klin A, Donald C (eds) Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. Wiley, Hoboken, pp 1102–1120

  78. Schultz RT, Gauthier I, Klin A, Fulbright RK, Anderson AW, Volkmar F, Skudlarski P, Lacadie C, Cohen DJ, Gore JC (2000) Abnormal ventral temporal cortical activity during face discrimination among individuals with autism and Asperger syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57:331–340

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Schultz RT, Grelotti DJ, Klin A, Kleinman J, Van der Gaag C, Marois R, Skudlarski P (2003) The role of the fusiform face area in social cognition: implications for the pathobiology of autism. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci 358:415–427

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Schultz RT, Romanski LM, Tsatsanis KD (2000) Neurofunctional models of autistic disorder and Asperger syndrome: clues from neuroimaging. In: Klin A, Volkmar FR (eds) Asperger syndrome. The Guilford Press, New York, pp 172–209

    Google Scholar 

  81. Seltzer MM, Krauss MW, Shattuck PT, Orsmond G, Swe A, Lord C (2003) The symptoms of autism spectrum disorders in adolescence and adulthood. J Autism Dev Disord 33:565–581

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Shao Y, Cuccaro ML, Hauser ER, Raiford KL, Menold MM, Wolpert CM, Ravan SA, Elston L, Decena K, Donnelly SL, Abramson RK, Wright HH, DeLong GR, Gilbert JR, Pericak-Vance MA (2003) Fine mapping of autistic disorder to chromosome 15q11-q13 by use of phenotypic subtypes. Am J Hum Genet 72:539–548

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Shao Y, Raiford KL, Wolpert CM, Cope HA, Ravan SA, Ashley-Koch AA, Abramson RK, Wright HH, DeLong RG, Gilbert JR, Cuccaro ML, Pericak-Vance MA (2002) Phenotypic homogeneity provides increased support for linkage on chromosome 2 in autistic disorder. Am J Hum Genet 70:1058–1061

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Shao Y, Wolpert CM, Raiford KL, Menold MM, Donnelly SL, Ravan SA, Bass MP, McClain C, von Wendt L, Vance JM, Abramson RH, Wright HH, Ashley-Koch A, Gilbert JR, DeLong RG, Cuccaro ML, Pericak-Vance MA (2002) Genomic screen and follow-up analysis for autistic disorder. Am J Med Genet 114:99–105

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. South M, Ozonoff S, McMahon W (2005) Repetitive behavior profiles in apserger syndrome adn high-functioning autism. J Autism Dev Disord 35:145–158

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Spiker D, Lotspeich LJ, Dimiceli S, Myers RM, Risch N (2002) Behavioral phenotypic variation in autism multiplex families: evidence for a continuous severity gradient. Am J Med Genet 114:129–136

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Steingard RJ, Zimnitzky B, DeMaso DR, Bauman ML, Bucci JP (1997) Sertraline treatment of transition-associated anxiety and agitation in children with autistic disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 7:9–15

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Stone J, Merriman B, Cantor RY, Gilliam T, Geshwind D, Nelson S (2004) Evidence for sex specific risk alleles in autism spectrum disorder. Am J Hum Genet 75:1117–1123

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Szatmari P, MacLean JE, Jones MB, Bryson SE, Zwaigenbaum L, Bartolucci G, Mahoney WJ, Tuff L (2000) The familial aggregation of the lesser variant in biological and nonbiological relatives of PDD probands: a family history study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 41:579–586

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Tantam D (2000) Adolescence and adulthood of individuals with Asperger syndrome. In: Klin A, Volkmar FR (eds) Asperger syndrome. The Guilford Press, New York, pp 367–399

    Google Scholar 

  91. Tantam D (1991) Asperger syndrome in adulthood. In: Frith U (eds) Autism and Asperger syndrome. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  92. Tantam D (2000) Psychological disorder in adolescents and adults with Asperger syndrome. Autism 4:47–62

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Tentler D, Johannesson T, Johansson M, Rastam M, Gillberg C, Orsmark C, Carlsson B, Wahlstrom J, Dahl N (2003) A candidate region for Asperger syndrome defined by two 17p breakpoints. Eur J Hum Genet 11:189–195

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Veenstra-VanderWeele J, Cook EH Jr (2004) Molecular genetics of autism spectrum disorder. Mol Psychiatry 9:819–832

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Volkmar FR, Klin A (2000) Diagnostic issues in Asperger syndrome. In: Klin A, Volkmar FR (eds) Asperger syndrome. The Guilford Press, New York, pp 25–71

    Google Scholar 

  96. Volkmar FR, Klin A, Pauls D (1998) Nosological and genetic aspects of Asperger syndrome. J Autism Dev Disord 28:457–463

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Volkmar FR, Klin A, Schultz R, Bronen R, Marans WD, Sparrow S, Cohen DJ (1996) Asperger’s syndrome (clinical conference). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:118–123

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Volkmar FR, Klin A, Schultz RT, Rubin E, Bronen R (2000) Asperger’s disorder. Am J Psychiatry 157:262–267

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Volkmar FR, Klin A, Siegel B, Szatmari P, Lord C, Campbell M, Freeman BJ, Cicchetti DV, Rutter M, Kline W et al (1994) Field trial for autistic disorder in DSM-IV. Am J Psychiatry 151:1361–1367

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Wallace GL, Treffert DA (2004) Head size and autism. Lancet 363:1003–1004

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Weintraub S, Mesulam MM (1983) Developmental learning disabilities of the right hemisphere. Emotional, interpersonal, and cognitive components. Arch Neurol 11:463–468

    Google Scholar 

  102. Welchew DE, Ashwin C, Berkouk K, Salvador R, Suckling J, Baron-Cohen S, Bullmore E (2005) Functional disconnectivity of the medial temporal lobe in Asperger’s syndrome. Biol Psychiatry 57:991–998

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Wing L (1981) Asperger’s syndrome: a clinical account. Psychol Med 11:115–129

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Wing L (1997) The autistic spectrum. Pergamon, New York

    Google Scholar 

  105. Wing L, Leekam SR, Libby SJ, Gould J, Larcombe M (2002) The diagnostic interview for social and communication disorders: background, inter-rater reliability and clinical use. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 43:307–325

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Wolff S (1991) “Schizoid” personality in childhood and adult life. I: The vagaries of diagnostic labelling. Br J Psychiatry 159:615–620

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Wolff S, Barlow A (1979) Schizoid personality in childhood: a comparative study of schizoid, autistic and normal children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 20:29–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Woodbury-Smith M, Clare IC, Holland A, Kearns A (2006) High functioning autistic spectrum disorders, offending and other law-breaking: findings from a community sample. J Forensic Psychiatry Psychol 17:108–120

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Woodbury-Smith M, Klin A, Volkmar F (2005) Asperger’s syndrome: a comparison of clinical diagnoses and those made according to the ICD-10 and DSM-IV. J Autism Dev Disord 35:235–240

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. World Health Organization W (1990) International classification of diseases (draft version: Diagnostic criteria for research). WHO, Geneva

  111. Wozniak J, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Frazier J, Kim J, Millstein R, Gershon J, Thornell A, Cha K, Snyder JB (1997) Mania in children with pervasive developmental disorders revisited. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36:1552–1560

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Ylisaukko-oja T, Wendt T-v, Kempas E, Sarenius S, Varilo T, von Wendt L, Peltonen L, Jarvela I (2004) Genome-wide scan for loci of Asperger syndrome. Mol Psychiatry 9:161–168

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Ziatas K, Durkin K, Pratt C (2003) Differences in assertive speech acts produced by children with autism, Asperger syndrome, specific language impairment, and normal development. Dev Psychopathol 15:73–94

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Autism Research Centre and Section of Developmental Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Douglas House, 18 b Trumpington Road, Cambridge, CB2 2AH, UK

    Marc R. Woodbury-Smith

  2. Yale Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine, 230 South Frontage Road, New Haven, 06520, USA

    Fred R. Volkmar

Authors
  1. Marc R. Woodbury-Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Fred R. Volkmar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marc R. Woodbury-Smith.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Woodbury-Smith, M.R., Volkmar, F.R. Asperger syndrome. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 18, 2–11 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-008-0701-0

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-008-0701-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation