Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of the Physical Environment on Cognitive Load and Learning: Towards a New Model of Cognitive Load

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Educational Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Although the theoretical framework of cognitive load theory has acknowledged a role for the learning environment, the specific characteristics of the physical learning environment that could affect cognitive load have never been considered, neither theoretically nor empirically. In this article, we argue that the physical learning environment, and more specifically its effects on cognitive load, can be regarded as a determinant of the effectiveness of instruction. We present an updated version of the cognitive load model of Paas and Van Merriënboer (Educational Psychology Review, 6:351–371, 1994a), in which the physical learning environment is considered a distinct causal factor that can interact with learner characteristics, learning-task characteristics, or a combination of both. Previous research into effects of the physical learning environment on cognitive performance that could inspire new cognitive load research is discussed, and a future research agenda is sketched.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adam, H., & Galinsky, A. D. (2012). Enclothed cognition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 918–925. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, R. J. (2001). Culture and pedagogy: international comparisons in primary education. Oxford: Blackwell.

  • Anderson, B. L., & Winawer, J. (2005). Image segmentation and lightness perception. Nature, 434, 79–83. doi:10.1038/nature03271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, P. (1993). Why goal-free problems can facilitate learning. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 376–381. doi:10.1006/ceps.1993.1027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayres, P., & Paas, F. (2012). Cognitive load theory: new directions and challenges. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26, 827–832. doi:10.1002/Acp.2882.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Anan, Y., Liberman, N., & Trope, Y. (2006). The association between psychological distance and construal level: evidence from an implicit association test. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 135, 609. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.135.4.609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beer, R. D. (2000). Dynamical approaches to cognitive science. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 91–99. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(99)01440-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beilock, S. L., Gunderson, E. A., Ramirez, G., & Levine, S. C. (2010). Female teachers’ math anxiety affects girls’ math achievement. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 1860–1863. doi:10.1073/pnas.0910967107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bjork, R. A. (1994). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: knowing about knowing (pp. 185–205). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, A., & Chalmers, D. (1998). The extended mind. Analysis, 58, 7–19. doi:10.1093/analys/58.1.7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Evans, G. W., Krantz, D. S., & Stokols, D. (1980). Physiological, motivational, and cognitive effects of aircraft noise on children: moving from the laboratory to the field. American Psychologist, 35, 231–243. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.35.3.231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: a reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 87–114. doi:10.1017/S0140525X01003922.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dillenbourg, P., & Traum, D. (1997). The role of a whiteboard in a distributed cognitive system. Paper presented at the Swiss workshop on collaborative and distributed systems, Lausanne, Switzerland, May 1st 1997. Retrieved on January, 15, 2014. from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.21.1042&rep=rep1&type=pdf

  • Doherty-Sneddon, G., & Phelps, F. G. (2005). Gaze aversion: a response to cognitive or social difficulty? Memory & Cognition, 33, 727–733. doi:10.3758/BF03195338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doherty-Sneddon, G., Bruce, V., Bonner, L., Longbotham, S., & Doyle, C. (2002). Development of gaze aversion as disengagement from visual information. Developmental Psychology, 38, 438–445. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.3.438.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dowaliby, F., & Schumer, H. (1973). Teacher-centered versus student-centered mode of college classroom instruction as related to manifest anxiety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 64, 125. doi:10.1037/h0034590.

  • Erez, A., & Isen, A. M. (2002). The influence of positive affect on the components of expectancy motivation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 1055–1067. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.6.1055.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, G. W. (2006). Child development and the physical environment. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 423–451. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190057.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans, G. W., & Lepore, S. J. (1993). Nonauditory effects of noise on children: a critical review. Children’s Environments, 10, 31–51. doi:10.2307/41515250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, G. W., & Stecker, R. (2004). Motivational consequences of environmental stress. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24, 143–165. doi:10.1016/S0272-4944(03)00076-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, M. W., & Calvo, M. G. (1992). Anxiety and performance—the processing efficiency theory. Cognition & Emotion, 6, 409–434. doi:10.1080/02699939208409696.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: attentional control theory. Emotion, 7, 336–353. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, K., Huffman, J., Ma, I., Wright, B., McIlwrick, J., & McLaughlin, K. (2011). Death of a manikin: adverse effects on learning and mechanisms. CHEST Journal, 140, 1024A–1024A. doi:10.1378/chest.1112887.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, K., Ma, I., Teteris, E., Baxter, H., Wright, B., & McLaughlin, K. (2012). Emotion, cognitive load and learning outcomes during simulation training. Medical Education, 46, 1055–1062. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2012.04355.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fujita, K., Henderson, M. D., Eng, J., Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2006). Spatial distance and mental construal of social events. Psychological Science, 17, 278–282. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01698.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geary, D. C. (2008). An evolutionarily informed education science. Educational Psychologist, 43, 179–195. doi:10.1080/00461520802392133.

  • Gisselgard, J., Petersson, K. M., Baddeley, A. D., & Ingvar, M. (2003). The irrelevant speech effect: a PET study. Neuropsychologia, 41, 1899–1911. doi:10.1016/S0028-3932(03)00122-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gisselgard, J., Petersson, K. M., & Ingvar, M. (2004). The irrelevant speech effect and working memory load. NeuroImage, 22, 1107–1116. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.02.031.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glenberg, A. M., Schroeder, J. L., & Robertson, D. A. (1998). Averting the gaze disengages the environment and facilitates remembering. Memory & Cognition, 26, 651–658. doi:10.3758/BF03211385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Godden, D., & Baddeley, A. D. (1980). When does context influence recognition memory? British Journal of Psychology, 71, 99–104. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1980.tb02735.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grant, H. M., Bredahl, L. C., Clay, J., Ferrie, J., Groves, J. E., McDorman, T. A., & Dark, V. J. (1998). Context-dependent memory for meaningful material: information for students. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 617–623. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(1998120)12:6<617::AID-ACP542>3.0.CO;2-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gump, P. V. (1980). The school as a social situation. Annual Review of Psychology, 31, 553–582. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.36.020185.000555.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hancock, D. R. (2001). Effects of test anxiety and evaluative threat on students’ achievement and motivation. Journal of Educational Research, 94, 284–290. doi:10.1080/00220670109598764.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hattie, J., & Watkins, D. (1988). Preferred classroom environment and approach to learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 345–349. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1988.tb00910.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, S., Hall, E., Wall, K., Woolner, P., & McCaughey, C. (2005). The impact of school environments: a literature review. The Centre for Learning and Teaching, School of Education, Communication and Language Science, University of Newcastle. Retrieved on February, 16, 2014. from http://www.ncl.ac.uk/cflat/news/DCReport.pdf.

  • Hong, S. B., Hong, Y. C., Kim, J. W., Park, E. J., Shin, M. S., Kim, B. N., et al. (2013). Bisphenol A in relation to behavior and learning of school‐age children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 890–899. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12050.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hygge, S., & Knez, I. (2001). Effects of noise, heat and indoor lighting on cognitive performance and self-reported affect. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21, 291–299. doi:10.1006/jevp.2001.0222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jamieson, P., Fisher, K., Gilding, T., Taylor, P. G., & Trevitt, A. C. F. (2000). Place and space in the design of new learning environments. Higher Education Research and Development, 19, 221–236. doi:10.1080/072943600445664.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jia, L., Hirt, E. R., & Karpen, S. C. (2009). Lessons from a faraway land: the effect of spatial distance on creative cognition. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 1127–1131. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.05.015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalyuga, S. (2011). Cognitive load theory: how many types of load does it really need? Educational Psychology Review, 23, 1–19. doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9150-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003). The expertise reversal effect. Educational Psychologist, 38, 23–31. doi:10.1207/S15326985ep3801_4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kalyuga, S., Rikers, R., & Paas, F. (2012). Educational implications of expertise reversal effects in learning and performance of complex cognitive and sensorimotor skills. Educational Psychology Review, 24, 313–337. doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9195-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschner, F., Paas, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2009). A cognitive load approach to collaborative learning: united brains for complex tasks. Educational Psychology Review, 21, 31–42. doi:10.1007/s10648-008-9095-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschner, F., Paas, F., & Kirschner, P. A. (2011a). Task complexity as a driver for collaborative learning efficiency: the collective working-memory effect. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 615–624. doi:10.1002/acp.1730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschner, F., Paas, F., Kirschner, P. A., & Janssen, J. (2011b). Differential effects of problem-solving demands on individual and collaborative learning outcomes. Learning and Instruction, 21, 587–599. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.01.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirschner, P. A., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2013). Do learners really know best? Urban legends in education. Educational Psychologist, 48, 169–183. doi:10.1080/00461520.2013.804395.

  • Knez, I., & Enmarker, I. (1998). Effects of office lighting on mood and cognitive performance and a gender effect in work-xrelated judgment. Environment and Behavior, 30, 553–567. doi:10.1177/001391659803000408.

  • Knez, I., & Kers, C. (2000). Effects of indoor lighting, gender, and age on mood and cognitive performance. Environment and Behavior, 32, 817–831. doi:10.1177/0013916500326005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knez, I., & Hygge, S. (2002). Irrelevant speech and indoor lighting: effects on cognitive performance and self–reported affect. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 16, 709–718. doi:10.1002/acp.829.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, A. F., Coyne, J. T., & Strayer, D. L. (1993). Cognitive function at high-altitude. Human Factors, 35, 329–344. doi:10.1177/001872089303500208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lan, L., Wargocki, P., Wyon, D. P., & Lian, Z. (2011). Effects of thermal discomfort in an office on perceived air quality, SBS symptoms, physiological responses, and human performance. Indoor Air, 21, 376–390. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0668.2011.00714.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leppink, J., Paas, F., Van der Vleuten, C. P. M., Van Gog, T., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2013). Development of an instrument for measuring different types of cognitive load. Behavioral Research Methods, 45, 1058–1072. doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0334-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leppink, J., Paas, F., Van Gog, T., Van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2014). Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load. Learning and Instruction, 30, 32–42. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.12.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, L. E., Shepard, T. G., Burger, K., & Chakwin, E. M. (2012). Flavor-intensity perception: effects of stimulus context. Physiology & Behavior, 105, 443–450. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.039.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marx, A., Fuhrer, U., & Hartig, T. (1999). Effects of classroom seating arrangements on children’s question-asking. Learning Environments Research, 2, 249–263. doi:10.1023/A:1009901922191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCoy, J. M., & Evans, G. W. (2002). The potential role of the physical environment in fostering creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 14, 409–426. doi:10.1207/S15326934CRJ1434_11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mehrabian, A. (1969). Significance of posture and position in the communication of attitude and status relationships. Psychological Bulletin, 71, 359–372. doi:10.1037/h0027349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mehta, R., & Zhu, R. J. (2009). Blue or red? Exploring the effect of color on cognitive task performances. Science, 323, 1226–1229. doi:10.1126/science.1169144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mehta, R., Zhu, R. J., & Cheema, A. (2012). Is noise always bad? Exploring the effects of ambient noise on creative cognition. Journal of Consumer Research, 39, 784–799. doi:10.1086/665048.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendell, M. J., & Heath, G. A. (2005). Do indoor pollutants and thermal conditions in schools influence student performance? A critical review of the literature. Indoor Air, 15, 27–52. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0668.2004.00320.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meyers–Levy, J., & Zhu, R. J. (2007). The influence of ceiling height: the effect of priming on the type of processing that people use. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 174–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81–97. doi:10.1037/h0043158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montello, D. R. (1988). Classroom seating location and its effect on course achievement, participation, and attitudes. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 8, 149–157. doi:10.1016/S0272-4944(88)80005-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2000). A coherence effect in multimedia learning: the case for minimizing irrelevant sounds in the design of multimedia instructional messages. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 117–125. doi:10.1037//0022-0663.92.1.117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nairne, J. S., & Pandeirada, J. N. S. (2010). Adaptive memory: ancestral priorities and the mnemonic value of survival processing. Cognitive Psychology, 61, 1–22. doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2010.01.005.

  • Needleman, H. L., Gunnoe, C., Leviton, A., Reed, R., Peresie, H., Maher, C., & Barrett, P. (1979). Deficits in psychologic and classroom performance of children with elevated dentine lead levels. The New England Journal of Medicine, 300, 689–695. doi:10.1056/NEJM197903293001301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen, H. D., & Moos, R. H. (1978). Exploration and adjustment in high school classrooms: a study of person-environment fit. The Journal of Educational Research, 72, 52–57. doi:10.2307/27537177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Otgaar, H., & Smeets, T. (2010). Adaptive memory: survival processing increases both true and false memory in adults and children. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 1010. doi:10.1037/a0019402.

  • Paas, F. (1992). Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: a cognitive-load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 429–434. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paas, F., Camp, G., & Rikers, R. (2001). Instructional compensation for age-related cognitive declines: effects of goal specificity in maze learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 181. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003a). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: recent developments. Educational Psychologist, 38, 1–4. doi:10.1207/S15326985ep3801_1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2004). Cognitive load theory: instructional implications of the interaction between information structures and cognitive architecture. Instructional Science, 32, 1–8. doi:10.1023/B:TRUC.0000021806.17516.d0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2012). An evolutionary upgrade of cognitive load theory: using the human motor system and collaboration to support the learning of complex cognitive tasks. Educational Psychology Review, 24, 27–45. doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9179-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paas, F., Tuovinen, J. E., Tabbers, H., & Van Gerven, P. W. M. (2003b). Cognitive load measurement as a means to advance cognitive load theory. Educational Psychologist, 38, 63–71. doi:10.1207/S15326985ep3801_8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paas, F., Tuovinen, J. E., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Darabi, A. A. (2005). A motivational perspective on the relation between mental effort and performance: optimizing learner involvement in instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53, 25–34. doi:10.1007/Bf02504795.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1993). The efficiency of instructional conditions: an approach to combine mental effort and performance measures. Human Factors, 35, 737–743. doi:10.1177/001872089303500412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1994a). Instructional control of cognitive load in the training of complex cognitive tasks. Educational Psychology Review, 6, 351–371. doi:10.1007/bf02213420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1994b). Variability of worked examples and transfer of geometrical problem-solving skills: a cognitive-load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 122–133. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.1.122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, L. R., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193–198. doi:10.1037/h0049234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plass, J. L., Heidig, S., Hayward, E. O., Homer, B. D., & Um, E. (2013). Emotional design in multimedia learning: effects of shape and color on affect and learning. Learning and Instruction. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.02.006.

    Google Scholar 

  • Retnowati, E., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2010). Worked example effects in individual and group work settings. Educational Psychology, 30, 349–367. doi:10.180/01443411003659960.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rey, G. D. (2012). A review of research and a meta-analysis of the seductive detail effect. Educational Research and Review, 7, 216–237. doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2012.05.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rey, G. D. (2014). Seductive details and attention distraction—an eye tracker experiment. Computers in Human Behavior, 32, 133–144. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.11.017.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rivlin, L. G., & Weinstein, C. S. (1984). Educational issues, school settings, and environmental psychology. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 4, 347–364. doi:10.1016/S0272-4944(84)80005-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salamé, P., & Baddeley, A. D. (1982). Disruption of short-term memory by unattended speech: implications for the structure of working memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 21, 150–164. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(82)90521-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salamé, P., & Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Phonological factors in STM: similarity and the unattended speech effect. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 24, 263–265. doi:10.3758/BF03330135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review, 84, 1–66. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.1.1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scholey, A. B., Harper, S., & Kennedy, D. O. (2001). Cognitive demand and blood glucose. Physiology & Behavior, 73, 585–592. doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(01)00476-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scholey, A. B., Moss, M. C., Neave, N., & Wesnes, K. (1999). Cognitive performance, hyperoxia, and heart rate following oxygen administration in healthy young adults. Physiology & Behavior, 67, 783–789. doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(99)00183-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwebel, A. I., & Cherlin, D. L. (1972). Physical and social distancing in teacher-pupil relationships. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 543–550. doi:10.1037/h0034081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: Ii. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A., & Ayres, P. (this issue). The impact of persistent pain on working memory and learning. Educational Psychology Review.

  • Smith, E. E., & Jonides, J. (1999). Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes. Science, 283, 1657–1661. doi:10.1126/science.283.5408.1657.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. M., & Vela, E. (2001). Environmental context-dependent memory: a review and meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 203–220. doi:10.3758/BF03196157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sommer, R. (1967). Classroom ecology. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 3, 489–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suss, C., Gaylord, S., & Fagen, J. (2012). Odor as a contextual cue in memory reactivation in young infants. Infant Behavior & Development, 35, 580–583. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2012.05.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257–285. doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweller, J. (2008). Instructional implications of David C. Geary’s evolutionary educational psychology. Educational Psychologist, 43, 214–216. doi:10.1080/00461520802392208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweller, J. (2010). Element interactivity and intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load. Educational Psychology Review, 22, 123–138. doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9128-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011). Cognitive load theory (vol. 1). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweller, J., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251–296. doi:10.1023/A:1022193728205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanner, C. K. (2000). The influence of school architecture on academic achievement. Journal of Educational Administration, 38, 309–330. doi:10.1108/09578230010373598.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanner, C. K. (2008). Explaining relationships among student outcomes and the school’s physical environment. Journal of Advanced Academics, 19, 444–471. doi:10.4219/jaa-2008-812.

    Google Scholar 

  • Titchener, E. B. (1901). Experimental psychology: A manual of laboratory practice (vol. 1). New York: The Macmillan Co.

  • Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010). Construal-level theory of psychological distance. Psychological Review, 117, 440–463. doi:10.1037/a0018963.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tulving, E., & Thomson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352–373. doi:10.1037/h0020071.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. R., & Carroll, D. (1985). Heart rate and oxygen consumption during mental arithmetic, a video game, and graded exercise: further evidence of metabolically-exaggerated cardiac adjustments? Psychophysiology, 22, 261–267. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1985.tb01597.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uline, C., & Tschannen-Moran, M. (2008). The walls speak: the interplay of quality facilities, school climate, and student achievement. Journal of Educational Administration, 46, 55–73. doi:10.1108/09578230810849817.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Um, E., Plass, J. L., Hayward, E. O., & Homer, B. D. (2012). Emotional design in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104, 485–498. doi:10.1037/A0026609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G. (2002). Cognitive load theory and aging: effects of worked examples on training efficiency. Learning and Instruction, 12, 87–105. doi:10.1016/s0959-4752(01)00017-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Gerven, P. W. M., Paas, F., Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Schmidt, H. G. (2006). Modality and variability as factors in training the elderly. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 311–320. doi:10.1002/acp.1247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Gog, T., Paas, F., & Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2006). Effects of process-oriented worked examples on troubleshooting transfer performance. Learning and Instruction, 16, 154–164. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.02.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (1990). Strategies for programming instruction in high school: program completion vs. program generation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 6, 265–285. doi:10.2190/4NK5-17L7-TWQV-1EHL.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & De Croock, M. B. M. (1992). Strategies for computer-based programming instruction: program completion vs. program generation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 8, 365–394. doi:10.2190/MJDX-9PP4-KFMT-09PM.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005). Cognitive load theory and complex learning: recent developments and future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 147–177. doi:10.1007/s10648-005-3951-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2010). Cognitive load theory in health professional education: design principles and strategies. Medical Education, 44, 85–93. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03498.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vredeveldt, A., Hitch, G., & Baddeley, A. D. (2011). Eyeclosure helps memory by reducing cognitive load and enhancing visualisation. Memory & Cognition, 39, 1253–1263. doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0098-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, C. S. (1979). The physical environment of the school: a review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 49, 577–610. doi:10.3102/00346543049004577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinstein, Y., Bugg, J. M., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). Can the survival recall advantage be explained by basic memory processes? Memory & Cognition, 36, 913–919. doi:10.3758/MC.36.5.913.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9, 625–636. doi:10.3758/BF03196322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, N., & Watkins, D. (1996). Self-monitoring as a mediator of person-environment fit: an investigation of Hong Kong mathematics classroom environments. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 66, 223–229. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8279.1996.tb01191.x.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, P.O. Box 1738, 3000, DR, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

    Hwan-Hee Choi & Fred Paas

  2. Department of Educational Development and Research, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands

    Jeroen J. G. van Merriënboer

  3. Early Start Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia

    Fred Paas

Authors
  1. Hwan-Hee Choi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jeroen J. G. van Merriënboer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Fred Paas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hwan-Hee Choi.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Choi, HH., van Merriënboer, J.J.G. & Paas, F. Effects of the Physical Environment on Cognitive Load and Learning: Towards a New Model of Cognitive Load. Educ Psychol Rev 26, 225–244 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-014-9262-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-014-9262-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation