Dietary Studies of Children: The Bogalusa Heart Study Experience

doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(95)00305-3

Journal of the American Dietetic Association

Volume 95, Issue 10, October 1995, Pages 1127-1133

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-8223(95)00305-3 Get rights and content

Abstract

For more than 20 years the Bogalusa Heart Study has been collecting data on children's dietary intakes in a biracial community. The macronutrient contribution of children's diets is similar to that in diets of adolescents: 13% of energy from protein, 49% from carbohydrate, and 38% from fat. As children get older, mean intakes of vitamins and minerals per 1,000 kcal decrease. Ten-year-old children in 1987-1988 were 3 lb heavier than 10-year-olds in 1973-1974. Yet total energy intakes remained virtually the same from 1973 to 1988. The composition of macronutrients shifted over the 15-year period, with an increase in the percentage of energy from protein and carbohydrate and a decrease in the percentage of energy from total fat, particularly saturated fat. Dietary cholesterol intake also decreased as a result of a decrease in egg consumption. Although the diets of children changed positively from 1973 to 1988, more than 75% of children consumed more total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol than the recommended amounts. School meals had a major impact on the diets of children. School breakfast and lunch, together, contributed approximately 50% of the day's total intake of energy, protein, cholesterol, carbohydrate, and sodium. About 40% of daily total fat intake came from school breakfast and lunch. The diets of children in the Bogalusa study are similar to those reported in national studies of children. What might be different, however, are the types of foods consumed and their contribution to intakes of specific nutrients. An understanding of the diet and nutrition habits of children is critical to the planning of intervention strategies that will assist us in meeting our dietary goals for Healthy People 2000. J Am Diet Assoc. 1995; 95:1127-1133.

Section snippets

Methods of Studying Dietary Intake

The dietary data collection methods developed for the Bogalusa Heart Study have been used consistently since 1973. The face-to-face, carefully structured 24-hour recalls were tailored for children (8), (15), (16) and Bogalusa Heart Study Nutrition Staff. In-house Dietary Studies Methodology. Editions 1 through 7. Bogalusa Heart Study, 1978-1988. Internal Document). For young children, parents served as the respondents. The tools used for assessing dietary intake included graduated food models

Macronutrients

As expected, total energy intake increases with age. Yet the general composition of macronutrients of children and adolescents is similar: 13% protein, 49% carbohydrate, and 38% fat (3). The low ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fat (<.0.5) at all ages reflects a diet high in saturated fat (14% to 16%) and low in polyunsaturated fat (5.7%). Mean cholesterol intake reaches adolescent levels by 2 years of age. Cholesterol intake is about 300 mg/day, or 140 to 150 mg/1,000 kcal.

The percentage

Secular Trends in Dietary Intakes of Children

Energy intake and ponderosity of the six survey years for 10-year-olds is presented in Figure 2. Ten-year-old children in 1987-1988 were 3 lb heavier than 10-year-olds in 1973-1974. This is reflected in a significant positive trend (P<.0001) in the ponderal index. Total energy intakes remained virtually the same from 1973 to 1988, ranging from 2,054 kcal (1981 to 1982) to 2,316 kcal (1976-1977). No racial differences were detected, but boys had consistently higher energy intakes than girls. A

Contribution of School Meals To Dietary Intakes of Children

The energy and nutrient contribution of school meals to dietary intakes of participating children (Bogalusa Heart Study 1987-1988) is presented in Table 3. As eaten, school breakfast contributed 26% of the daily energy intake of 10-year-old children. About one fourth to one third of the day's total protein, carbohydrate, cholesterol, and sodium intake was provided by school breakfast, Approximately 15% and 18% of the children's total fat and sucrose intake, respectively, came from school

Food Sources of Nutrients

The macronutrient composition of diet for Bogalusa children is similar to that reported in national surveys between 1987 and 1994 (9), (10), (11), (12), (13), (14). What might be different, however, are the types of foods consumed and their contribution to intakes of specific nutrients. In Louisiana, red beans and rice with sausage are traditionally consumed on Mondays, and seafood such as fried catfish or shrimp and oyster poor boys (submarines) is consumed on Fridays. Other native dishes

Applications

Observations from the Bogalusa Heart Study and other studies have provided the rationale for modifying the eating lifestyles of children and young adults in the general population so that they approach current dietary recommendations (24), (25), (26). Schools provide an excellent setting for providing optimal nutrition for the majority of our children. Providing nutrition education for students, teachers, and foodservice personnel, as well as developing and marketing innovative school lunch

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Dietary patterns that develop in childhood often are maintained into adulthood [1].
To assess changes in the dietary habits and eating practices of a longitudinal cohort of adolescents over a 5-y period living in Soweto and Johannesburg.
An interviewer-assisted questionnaire was used to gather data on the dietary habits and eating practices across three environments: in the home, in the school, and in the community. Participants (n = 1451, 49.1% male, 89% black, and 11% with mixed ancestry) 13, 15, and 17 y old with complete data were included in the analyses.
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Poor eating habits in all three environments were found; the participants' propensity for foods that were energy dense and micronutrient poor was high. This study also found that dietary patterns are well established by 13 y of age.
Effect of the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR 677C>T) polymorphism on plasma homocysteine concentrations in healthy children is influenced by consumption of folate-fortified foods
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The main weakness of the 24-h dietary recall—the dietary assessment method that we used—is that individuals may not report their food consumption accurately for various reasons related to memory and the interview environment. When conducted in a population sample, a single 24-h recall is appropriate for estimating group means in children [45,46] but it is not a tool to predict individual-level health outcomes [47]. Regarding estimated folate intake by the recall method, this is correlated well with tHcy concentrations even in small samples [48].
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This was a cross-sectional study by face-to-face interview. A total of 186 sixth-grade students participated from randomly selected primary schools in Volos, Greece. Fasting plasma tHcy, folate, and vitamin B12 were measured. The MTHFR genotypes were determined. Anthropometric data were collected and dietary intake was assessed by two non-consecutive 24-h recalls. Participants were characterized as non-consumers of RTE breakfast cereals or fruit-juice drinks if there was no report of any such food during the 24-h recall interviews; all other children were classified as consumers.
Geometric means for plasma tHcy were higher, whereas plasma folate was lower in non-consumers compared with consumers. The sample was divided by consumption status (yes or no) to explore the significance of each polymorphism depending on consumption status. The association between the genotype and tHcy was restricted to non-consumers (P < 0.05). Specifically, only in children who did not consume RTE breakfast cereals or fruit-juice drinks did the TT genotype carriers exhibit higher tHcy concentrations when compared with C-allele carriers (P < 0.05). In contrast, in consumers, circulating tHcy was similar regardless of genotype.
These observational findings support a beneficial effect of RTE breakfast cereals and fruit-juice drinks on lowering plasma tHcy and improving folate status in children. Also, consumption of folate-fortified foods modulates the association of the MTHFR 677C > T polymorphism with tHcy, suggesting that habitual consumption of folate-fortified foods is a practical approach in providing consistent protection to those children who may benefit the most, i.e., carriers of the TT genotype.
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Bias Correction for Replacement Samples in Longitudinal Research
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View full text

Dietary Studies of Children: The Bogalusa Heart Study Experience

Abstract

Section snippets

Methods of Studying Dietary Intake

Macronutrients

Secular Trends in Dietary Intakes of Children

Contribution of School Meals To Dietary Intakes of Children

Food Sources of Nutrients

Applications

J Am Diet Assoc.

Am J Clin Nutr.

J Am Diet Assoc.

Am J Clin Nutr.

J Am Diet Assoc.

J Am Diet Assoc.

J Am Diet Assoc.

J Am Diet Assoc.

J Am Diet Assoc.

Am J Clni Nutr.

Am J Clin Nutr.

Diet & Health, Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk, 1989

Nutritional studies in children and implications for changethe Bogalusa Heart Study

J Adv Med.

Cardiovascular Risk in Early LifeThe Bogalusa Heart Study. Current concepts. A SCOPE publication

Foundations for health promotion with youtha review of observations from the Bogalusa Heart Study

J Health Educ.

Eating patterns, nutrient intakes and alcohol consumption patterns of young adultsthe Bogalusa Heart Study

Med Exerc Nutr Health.

Characterizing children's eating behavior

The 1987-88 Nationwide Food Consumption Surveyan update on the nutrient intake of respondents

Nutr Today.

Energy and macronutrient intakes of persons ages 2 months and over in the United StatesThird National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, phase 1, 1988-91

Advance Data.

Dietary intake of vitamins, minerals, and fiber of persons ages 2 months and over in the United StatesThird National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, phase 1, 1988-91

Advance Data.

Quality controls for processing dietary data

J Diet Software.

Effect of interviewer recording practices on nutrient intake—Bogalusa Heart Study

J Am Diet Assoc.