Elsevier

Human Pathology

Volume 18, Issue 7, July 1987, Pages 759-761
Human Pathology

Concurrent neocortical borreliosis and Alzheimer's disease

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    Finally, 68 studies (26 articles evaluating the risk factors involved in AD and toxoplasmosis, 21 review articles, 14 articles evaluating the association between AD and T. gondii in humans, and 7 animal models) were selected for evaluation using their full texts. Infectious agents that may be involved in AD include viral (e.g., Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) [44,45], cytomegalovirus (CMV) [46], Varicella zoster virus [47], Epstein-Barr virus [48], human herpesvirus (HHV)-6 [48], hepatitis C virus (HCV) [49], and HHV-2 [50]), fungal (e.g., Candida famata, Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, and Syncephalastrum racemosum [51, 52, 53], bacterial (e.g., spirochetes [54, 55], Borrelia burgdorferi [56, 57], Chlamydia pneumonia [4, 58, 59], Treponema pallidum [60], Helicobacter pylori [61, 62], actinomycetes [48], and Propionibacterium acnes [63], and parasitic (e.g., T. gondii [64, 65, 66, 67], Toxocara spp. [68], and Taenia solium [69]). Co-infection of two or more infectious agents may also occur and affect the initiation or exacerbation of AD, such as viruses and parasites [70, 71], bacteria and parasites [72], and bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites [73].

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    B. burgdorferi is also known to have a potential role in the pathogenesis of AD due to its neurotoxic effects. Several studies have reported having detected and cultivated B. burgdorferi from the brains of those who had suffered from AD (MacDonald and Miranda, 1987; Miklossy, 1993, 2011; Sochocka et al., 2017; Bennett et al., 2019). Miklossy (Miklossy et al., 2006) showed an increase in Aβ deposition and tau phosphorylation by B. burgdorferi in primary mammalian cultures.

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    A meta-analysis has indicated an odd ratio between 100–300% of identifying one or more species of spirochetes in AD brains or CSF as compared to controls (Miklossy, 2011). B. Burgdorferi was cultivated from postmortem brain of AD patients (MacDonald and Miranda, 1987) and DNA traces were detected both in brains, blood serum and CSF of AD patients (D’Aniello et al., 1992; Miklossy et al., 1996; Miklossy and Martins, 2008; Miklossy et al., 2004). B. Burgdorferi antigens were associated to neuritic plaques, which are typically more abundant in the olfactory tract, and appear to trigger amyloidogenesis and neuroinflammation (Miklossy, 2008a).

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from the Department of Pathology, Southampton Hospital, Southampton

°

Department of Medicine, Central Suffolk Hospital, Riverhead, New York

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