SeriesIntimate partner violence: causes and prevention
Section snippets
Social and demographic characteristics
With the exception of poverty, most demographic and social characteristics of men and women documented in survey research are not associated with increased risk of intimate partner violence. Age, for example, has occasionally been noted to be a risk factor for such violence, with a greater risk attached to youth,18, 19 but in most research a relation with age of either partner has not been seen.7, 9, 11, 20 Similarly, age at marriage is not an associated factor.11
Intimate partner violence is
Poverty
Poverty and associated stress are key contributors to intimate partner violence. Although violence occurs in all socioeconomic groups, it is more frequent and severe in lower groups across such diverse settings as the USA, Nicaragua, and India.8, 11, 18, 19, 20, 24 An influential theory explaining the relation between poverty and intimate partner violence is that it is mediated through stress. Since poverty is inherently stressful, it has been argued that intimate partner violence may result
Poverty, power, and sex identity
Within any setting ideas vary on what it means to be a man and what constitutes successful manhood.30 Gelles25 first postulated that the link between violence and poverty could be mediated through masculine identity. He argued that men living in poverty were unable to live up to their ideas of “successful” manhood and that, in the resulting climate of stress, they would hit women. Some social scientists have become especially interested in the effect of poverty on male identity and relations
Women and power
High levels of female empowerment seem to be protective against intimate partner violence, but power can be derived from many sources such as education, income, and community roles and not all of these convey equal protection or do so in a direct manner. In many studies, high educational attainment of women was associated with low levels of violence.5, 7, 11, 21, 39, 40 The same finding has been noted for men. Education confers social empowerment via social networks, self-confidence, and an
Relationship conflict
The frequency of verbal disagreements and of high levels of conflict in relationships are strongly associated with physical violence.6, 7, 21, 46 Violence is often deployed as a tactic in relationship conflict21 as well as being an expression of frustration or anger.35 Not surprisingly, marital instability—ie, a partner considering leaving the marriage—is a time of especial risk of violence.47, 48 Women who leave relationships are afterwards more at risk of stalking,2, 49 murder, and attempted
Alcohol
Alcohol consumption is associated with increased risk of all forms of interpersonal violence.51, 52 Heavy alcohol consumption by men (and often women)7 is associated with intimate partner violence,6, 9, 53 if not consistently.6 Alcohol is thought to reduce inhibitions, cloud judgment, and impair ability to interpret social cues.54 However, biological links between alcohol and violence are complex.55 Research on the social anthropology of alcohol drinking suggests that connections between
Social norms
Many researchers have discussed intimate partner violence as a learned social behaviour for both men and women. The intergenerational cycling of violence has been documented in many settings. The sons of women who are beaten are more likely to beat their intimate partners8, 10 and, in some settings, to have been beaten themselves as children. The daughters of women who are beaten are more likely to be beaten as adults.7, 20 Women who are beaten in childhood by parents are also more likely to be
Conclusions and implications for prevention
The causes of intimate partner violence are complex. However, two factors seem to be necessary in an epidemiological sense: the unequal position of women in a particular relationship (and in society) and the normative use of violence in conflict. Without either of these factors, intimate partner violence would not occur. These factors interact with a web of complementary factors to produce intimate partner violence (figure 3). The figure shows how ideologies of male superiority legitimise
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