Valuing temporary and chronic health states associated with breast screening
Introduction
The benefits of breast screening programmes are often defined solely in terms of gains from detecting breast cancer earlier. Yet other benefits may be derived from breast screening, such as reassurance for those women in whom no evidence of breast cancer is found. At the same time, attendance at breast screening may generate higher than usual levels of anxiety, even if this is short lived, and it may cause false reassurance in women whose breast cancer is missed or unnecessary anxiety if results are false positive. The actual process of receiving the invitation, attending the breast screening centre, having the mammogram and waiting for results may also affect quality of life. Recent studies of breast screening, both quality of life and non quality of life studies, have confirmed the importance of breast screening outcomes beyond those involving treatment for breast cancer. It has been suggested that a true negative outcome may give women reassurance (Gerard et al., 1992) but there is evidence of short lived periods of raised anxiety and physical discomfort or pain associated with a breast screening attendance (Fallowfield et al., 1990; Cockburn et al., 1994). Women who receive false positive results have been found to be extremely anxious after receiving a letter recalling them for further tests (Sutton et al., 1995) and to experience altered moods (Gram et al., 1990).
Determining the impact of breast screening on quality of life is complex for several reasons. Firstly, the breadth of outcomes involved can include possible reassurance, anxiety, or life threatening disease if treatment for breast cancer is required. Secondly, the range of durations of outcomes, with non breast cancer treatment outcomes for temporary periods of time followed by a return to previous health levels, and breast cancer treatment outcomes for durations covering the rest of the womans life. Thus, screening involves both temporary and chronic health states. Thirdly, individuals are asymptomatic at their screening attendance, rather than presenting with disease. The multiple outcomes of screening have been recognised for other screening programmes, such as antenatal screening, where researchers have recently argued for improved measures of benefit to capture the true effects of screening (Mooney and Lange, 1996; Shackley and Cairns, 1996).
The ideal outcome measure would address all these features. Within the context of outcome measurement for economic evaluation, however, previous studies of breast screening programmes have not addressed the issue of different durations and have placed emphasis on health states associated with breast cancer, deriving values for health states associated with treatment for breast cancer only (Buxton et al., 1987; Hall et al., 1992). de Haes et al. (1991) derived values for 15 health states associated with breast screening, 13 were associated with treatment for breast cancer, one with screening attendance and one with the diagnostic phase of screening. It is clear that breast screening has an impact on quality of life both in terms of treatment for breast cancer but also in terms of the screening process itself.
This paper has two related aims. Firstly, to generate quality of life values to be incorporated, at a later time, into the findings of two clinical trials investigating policy options for breast screening, in order to estimate quality adjusted life years. Secondly, to explore the methodological issues surrounding the valuation of temporary and chronic health states associated with breast screening. Issues particular to the valuation of temporary health states have not been discussed in any comprehensive manner in the literature.
Section snippets
Temporary and chronic health states
Temporary health states are states lasting for a specified period of time until a return to good health whilst chronic health states are states lasting for the rest of life until death (Torrance, 1986). The duration of temporary health states are short term and may be specified in terms of weeks, months or years, the only requirement being that the duration is less than life expectancy. The appropriate duration selected may depend on the health care intervention being evaluated. The duration of
Description
Screening programmes can be classified into four outcomes: true negative, false positive, true positive and false negative. These four outcomes were used as the basis for descriptions and are shown in Table 1. These four breast screening outcomes clearly involve combinations of events (invitation, screening, follow up and treatment) but this approach has the advantage that the value of the screen is not separated from the invitation or the result of the screen.
A literature review was conducted
Sample and characteristics
The response rate from the letter of invitation was 43.5% and the number of interviews conducted was 440. Individual and household characteristics of respondents are shown in Table 3. The characteristics of respondents are compared to U.K. census data for the same age groups of women in the general population (OPCS, 1991). The characteristics of respondents suggest that a higher proportion of women in the sample were married, although the proportions were similar in terms of ethnic origin. The
Summary
This study has explored the values associated with the four key outcomes of breast screening and the extent to which they differ. Comparisons were limited to paired comparisons between descriptions of the same duration. The paired ranking results showed that, at an ordinal level (as indicated by the ranking), differences were observed between the true negative and false positive descriptions and between the true positive and false negative descriptions. These differences were also observed at a
Acknowledgements
We thank the staff at the four participating breast screening centres; the interviewers and the women for being interviewed. We also thank Dawn Winpenny, Karen Arnold, Nicky Gillard and Jo Holland for secretarial support; Gavin Mooney for comments on a earlier draft; Martin Buxton and members of the advisory group; and two anonymous referees for their helpful comments.
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