A review of avian influenza in different bird species

doi:10.1016/S0378-1135(00)00160-7

Veterinary Microbiology

Volume 74, Issues 1–2, 22 May 2000, Pages 3-13

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-1135(00)00160-7 Get rights and content

Abstract

Only type A influenza viruses are known to cause natural infections in birds, but viruses of all 15 haemagglutinin and all nine neuraminidase influenza A subtypes in the majority of possible combinations have been isolated from avian species. Influenza A viruses infecting poultry can be divided into two distinct groups on the basis of their ability to cause disease. The very virulent viruses cause highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), in which mortality may be as high as 100%. These viruses have been restricted to subtypes H5 and H7, although not all viruses of these subtypes cause HPAI. All other viruses cause a much milder, primarily respiratory disease, which may be exacerbated by other infections or environmental conditions. Since 1959, primary outbreaks of HPAI in poultry have been reported 17 times (eight since 1990), five in turkeys and 12 in chickens. HPAI viruses are rarely isolated from wild birds, but extremely high isolation rates of viruses of low virulence for poultry have been recorded in surveillance studies, giving overall figures of about 15% for ducks and geese and around 2% for all other species. Influenza viruses have been shown to affect all types of domestic or captive birds in all areas of the world, but the frequency with which primary infections occur in any type of bird depends on the degree of contact there is with feral birds. Secondary spread is usually associated with human involvement, probably by transferring infective faeces from infected to susceptible birds.

Section snippets

Aetiology

A disease capable of causing extremely high mortality in infected fowls was first defined in 1878 and was known as ‘fowl plague’. The causative organism of this disease was shown to be an ultra-filterable agent, i.e. a ‘virus’, as early as 1901, but it was not until 1955 that the relationship of this and other milder viruses isolated from birds with mammalian influenza A viruses (first isolated in the 1930s) was demonstrated (Schafer, 1955). Only type A influenza viruses are known to cause

Avian influenza pathogenicity

Influenza A viruses infecting poultry can be divided into two distinct groups on the basis of their ability to cause disease in chickens. The very virulent viruses cause ‘fowl plague’, now termed highly pathogenic avian influenza [HPAI], in which mortality may be as high as 100%. These viruses have been restricted to subtypes H5 and H7, although not all viruses of these subtypes cause HPAI. All other viruses cause a much milder, primarily respiratory disease designated low pathogenicity avian

Wild birds

The first reported isolation of an influenza virus from feral birds was the HPAI H5N3 subtype virus obtained in 1961 from common terns (Sterna hirundo) in South Africa (Becker, 1966), but it was not until the mid-1970s that any systematic investigation of influenza in feral birds was undertaken. These revealed the enormous pools of influenza viruses now known to be present in the wild bird population.

Although about 90 species from some 12 of the 50 Orders of birds have yielded influenza viruses

Comment

The present understanding of the ecology of influenza viruses in birds is that there are large pools of influenza A viruses covering all known subtypes in feral birds, especially ducks and geese. The outbreaks of both HPAI and LPAI in domestic poultry seem to be the result of introduction initially from feral birds. Despite the frequency with which influenza viruses are isolated from domestic poultry in some countries, in none is it considered that these viruses are enzootic in turkeys or

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Waterbirds are vectors for the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance across environments, with some species increasingly reliant on highly anthropized habitats for feeding. However, data on the impact of their feeding habits on the carriage of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are still scarce. To fill this gap, we examined the microbiota (16S rRNA amplicon gene sequencing) and the prevalence of ARG (high-throughput qPCR of 47 genes) in faeces from white storks (Ciconia ciconia) and lesser black-backed gulls (Larus fuscus) feeding in highly (landfill) and less (paddy fields) polluted habitats. Faecal bacterial richness and diversity were higher in gulls feeding upon landfills and showed a greater abundance of potential pathogens, such as Staphylococcus. In contrast, faecal bacterial communities from storks were similar regardless of habitat preferences, maybe due to a less intense habitat use compared to gulls. In addition, birds feeding in the landfill carried a higher burden of ARGs compared to the surrounding soil and surface waters. Network analysis revealed strong correlations between ARGs and potential pathogens, particularly between tetM (resistance to tetracyclines), bla_CMY (beta-lactam resistance), sul1 (sulfonamide resistance) and members of the genera Streptococcus, Peptostreptococcus, and Peptoclostridium. Our work demonstrates how transitioning from paddy fields to landfills fosters the carriage of ARGs and potential pathogens in the bird gut, shedding light on the ecological role of these avian vectors in antimicrobial resistance dissemination.
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Veterinary Microbiology

Abstract

Section snippets

Aetiology

Avian influenza pathogenicity

Wild birds

Comment

References (45)

Is the gene pool of influenza viruses in shorebirds and gulls different from that in wild ducks?

Virology

The pathogenic determinant of influenza virus

Vet. Microbiol.

Haemagglutinin activation of pathogenic avian influenza viruses of serotype H7 requires the recognition motif R-X-R/K-R

Virology

An outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza in turkeys in Great Britain in 1991

Vet. Rec.

Isolation of an influenza A virus from ostriches (Struthio camelus)

Avian Pathol.

The isolation and classification of tern virus: influenza virus A/tern/South Africa/1961

J. Hygiene

Outbreaks of highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N2) in Italy during October 1997–January 1998

Avian Pathol.

Human influenza A H5 N1 virus related to a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus

Lancet

Diagnosis of highly pathogenic avian influenza in chickens: Bendigo 1992

Aust. Vet. J.

Heterogeneity in the haemagglutinin gene and emergence of the highly pathogenic phenotype among recent H5N2 avian influenza viruses from Mexico

J. Gen. Virol.

The perpetuation of orthomyxoviruses and paramyxoviruses in Canadian waterfowl

Can. J. Microbiol.

Cited by (1014)

Winged resistance: Storks and gulls increase carriage of antibiotic resistance by shifting from paddy fields to landfills

Enhance immune response to H9 AIV DNA vaccine based on polygene expression and DGL nanoparticle encapsulation

Predictive analysis for pathogenicity classification of H5Nx avian influenza strains using machine learning techniques

Common viral and bacterial avian respiratory infections: an updated review

Are all avian influenza outbreaks in poultry the same? The predicted impact of poultry species and virus subtype

Molecular characterization of avian influenza viruses (H5N2, H5N8, H5Nx and H9N2) isolated from chickens and ducks in the South of Egypt 2020 – 2021