Research review paperAn overview of foodborne pathogen detection: In the perspective of biosensors
Introduction
The food industry is the main party concerned with the presence of pathogenic microorganisms, where failure to detect a pathogen may lead to a dreadful effect. Although the safety of food has dramatically improved overall, progress is uneven and foodborne outbreaks from microbial contamination, chemicals and toxins are common in many countries (WHO, 2007b). International trade statistics (2007) by World Trade Organization (WTO) reported that Europe has accounted for 46% of world exports of agricultural products, where food represents 80% of agricultural exports (WTO, 2007). Trading of contaminated food between countries increases the potential for outbreaks and consequently, health risks posed by microbial pathogens in food are of major concern to all governments.
In November 2007, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has developed a comprehensive ‘Food Protection Plan’, in which it has been mentioned that food must be considered as a potential vehicle for intentional contamination (FDA, Food Protection Plan, 2007). Such intentional contamination of food could result in human or animal illnesses and deaths, as well as economic losses.
It has been reported in the EU legislation on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs, that “foodstuffs should not contain microorganisms or their toxins or metabolites in quantities that present an unacceptable risk for human health”, as laid down in Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 (Regulation (EC), 2005). Recently, the World Health Assembly (WHA) established a global surveillance system for public health emergencies of international concern by adopting the International Health Regulations (IHR) on 23 May 2005 which came into force on 15 June 2007 (WHO, 2005).
All these current legislations on food and health provide an intense inspiration into the area of food pathogen detection. Therefore, a comprehensive literature survey has been carried out aiming to give an overview of the field of foodborne pathogen detection. First, some of the outbreaks caused by foodborne pathogens and the main pathogens that cause foodborne diseases are discussed. Next, the main conventional methods in pathogen detection are described, covering their strengths and weaknesses. Then the role of biosensors in the field of foodborne pathogen detection is analysed, comprising all main types. Since, the literature related to foodborne pathogens is vast; this paper reports on recent advances mainly on the detection, identification and quantification of pathogens, with an emphasis on biosensors.
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines foodborne illnesses as diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food. Though the global incidence of foodborne disease is difficult to estimate, it has been reported that in 2005 alone 1.8 million people died from diarrhoeal diseases and a great proportion of these cases can be attributed to contamination of food and drinking water (WHO, 2007a). In industrialized countries, the percentage of the population suffering from foodborne diseases each year has been reported to be up to 30%. For, example, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2005) estimated that around 76 million cases of foodborne diseases, resulting in 325,000 hospitalizations and 5000 deaths occur each year in the USA.
Some foodborne diseases are well recognized, but are considered emerging because they have recently become more common. Though there are various food borne pathogens that have been identified for food borne illness, Campylobacter, Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, and Escherichia coli O157:H7 have been generally found to be responsible for majority of food-borne outbreaks (Alocilja and Radke, 2003, Chemburu et al., 2005). For example, in Ireland, Camplyobacter is the most important cause of sporadic cases of foodborne illness, with 1815 cases of Campylobacter infection reported in 2006 (42.8/100,000 population), which was over four times the number of Salmonellosis cases reported in the same year (FSAI, 2006). Also, most of the earlier and recent food products recalls are also due to these pathogens (Belson and Fahim, 2007). List of pathogenic microorganisms responsible for foodborne illness and outbreaks caused by them are given in Table 1, Table 2 respectively.
There are many methodical programs like good agricultural practices (Kay et al., 2008, Umali-Deininger and Sur, 2007), good manufacturing practices (Mucchetti et al., 2008, Umali-Deininger and Sur, 2007), hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) (Jin et al., 2008, Taylor, 2007) and the food code indicating approaches (Piatek and Ramaen, 2001), which can significantly reduce the pathogenic microorganisms in food. But still, the role of pathogen detection technology is vital, which is the key to the prevention and identification of problems related to health and safety. Next, the traditional methods employed for foodborne pathogen detection over the past decades to the recent year will be discussed, by highlighting their strengths and weakness.
Section snippets
Various methods towards pathogen detection
Conventional methods for the detection and identification of microbial pathogenic agents mainly rely on specific microbiological and biochemical identification. Conventional methods being used for the detection of pathogens are illustrated in Fig. 1, where the culture and colony counting methods involve counting of bacteria, immunology-based methods involve antigen–antibody interactions and the third polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method which involves DNA analysis. While these methods can be
Introduction to biosensors
A biosensor is an analytical device, which converts a biological response into an electrical signal. It consists of two main components: a bioreceptor or biorecognition element, which recognizes the target analyte and a transducer, for converting the recognition event into a measurable electrical signal. A bioreceptor can be a tissue, microorganism, organelle, cell, enzyme, antibody, nucleic acid and biomimic etc. and the transduction may be optical, electrochemical, thermometric,
Bioreceptors
Bioreceptors or the biological recognition elements are the key to specificity for biosensor technologies. A bioreceptor is a molecular species that utilizes a biochemical mechanism for recognition. They are responsible for binding the analyte of interest to the sensor for the measurement.
Bioreceptors can generally be classified into five different major categories. These categories include antibody/antigen, enzymes, nucleic acids/DNA, cellular structures/cells, biomimetic and bacteriophage
Transducers
The transducer plays an important role in the detection process of a biosensor. Biosensors can also be classified based upon the transduction methods they employ. Wide varieties of transduction methods have been developed in the past decade for the detection of foodborne pathogens. Although there are new types of transducers constantly being developed for use in biosensors, the transduction methods such as optical, electrochemical and mass based are given importance here since these are the
Electronic nose sensor
The development of an ‘electronic nose’ for pathogen detection has received considerable attention in recent years. Balasubramanian et al. (2005) used a commercially available Cyranose-320™ electronic nose system to identify S. typhimurium in inoculated beef samples. An electronic nose containing an array of 32 conducting polymer sensors was used to obtain the odour patterns of the headspace of the meat samples. The volatile organic compounds emanating from vacuum-packaged beef strip was
Summary and outlook
Though conventional pathogen detection methods are sensitive, they lag behind the analytical methods by detection time. However, the analytical techniques like optical and electrochemical detection have some disadvantages as well, considering sensitivity and cost. Therefore, new rapid methods are considered necessary for better performance. Optical techniques possibly provide better sensitivity relative to electrochemical detection, but they are expensive and complicated. In contrast,
Acknowledgement
This research work is funded by Science Foundation Ireland (SFI) Research Frontiers Programme, ID no: 07RPF-ENEF500.
References (385)
- et al.
Microbiological quality of fresh, minimally-processed fruit and vegetables, and sprouts from retail establishments
Int J Food Microbiol
(2008) - et al.
Flow-through immunofiltration assay system for rapid detection of E-coli O157: H7
Biosens Bioelectron
(1999) - et al.
Highly sensitive flow-injection immunoassay system for rapid detection of bacteria
Anal Chim Acta
(1999) - et al.
Survival of Shigella boydii 18 in bean salad
J Food Prot
(2005) - et al.
The use of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to differentiate Escherichia coli O157: H7 from other bacteria inoculated into apple juice
Food Microbiol
(2006) - et al.
Market analysis of biosensors for food safety
Biosens Bioelectron
(2003) - et al.
A genetically engineered cell-based biosensor for functional classification of agents
Biosens Bioelectron
(2001) - et al.
Comparison of ELISA and PCR vis-a-vis cultural methods for detecting Aeromonas spp. in foods of animal origin
Int J Food Microbiol
(2006) - et al.
Effects of modified atmosphere packaging on toxin production by Clostridium botulinum in raw aquacultured summer flounder fillets (Paralichthys dentatus)
J Food Prot
(2007) - et al.
Characterisation of polymer nanocomposite sensors for quantification of bacterial cultures
Sens Actuators B Chem
(2007)
Microbiological quality of sushi from sushi bars and retailers
J Food Prot
Assessment of the bacterial contamination on hands of hospital food handlers
Food Control
Lytic phage as a specific and selective probe for detection of Staphylococcus aureus — A surface plasmon resonance spectroscopic study
Biosens Bioelectron
A novel and simple cell-based detection system with a collagen-encapsulated B-lymphocyte cell line as a biosensor for rapid detection of pathogens and toxins
Lab Invest
Staphylococcal enterotoxin and its rapid identification in foods by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based methodology
J Food Prot
Detection of Escherichia coli O157: H7 with langasite pure shear horizontal surface acoustic wave sensors
Biosens Bioelectron
Presence of Clostridium botulinum spores in Matricaria chamomilla (chamomile) and its relationship with infant botulism
Int J Food Microbiol
Immunochemical detection of Salmonella group B, D and E using an optical surface plasmon resonance biosensor
FEMS Microbiol Lett
Microbiological characterization of imported and domestic boneless beef trim used for ground beef
J Food Prot
Bacteriophage-based bioluminescent bioreporter for the detection of Escherichia coli O157: H7
J Food Prot
Evaluation of a monoclonal antibody-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Campylobacter fetus in bovine preputial washing and vaginal mucus samples
Vet Microbiol
Prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella in ready-to-eat food in Catalonia, Spain
J Food Prot
Detection of pathogen Escherichia coli O157: H7 using self-excited PZT-glass microcantilevers
Biosens Bioelectron
Prevalence of Clostridium botulinum in food raw materials used in REPFEDs manufactured in France
Int J Food Microbiol
Evaluation of an extracting method for the detection of hepatitis A virus in shellfish by SYBR-green real-time RT-PCR
Int J Food Microbiol
and Kumar, M.P., Thermophilic Campylobacter spp. in salad vegetables in Malaysia
Int J Food Microbiol
Detection of Campylobacter jejuni in poultry samples using an enzyme-linked immunoassay coupled with an enzyme electrode
Biosens Bioelectron
Detection of pathogenic bacteria in food samples using highly-dispersed carbon particles
Biosens Bioelectron
Simultaneous detection of Escherichia coli O157: H7, Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes with an array-based immunosorbent assay using universal protein G-liposomal nanovesicles
Talanta
Salmonella detection in eggs using Lux(+) bacteriophages
J Food Prot
Using oligonucleotide-functionalized Au nanoparticles to rapidly detect foodborne pathogens on a piezoelectric biosensor
J Microbiol Methods
Microbiological survey of ready-to-eat foods and associated preparation surfaces in retail delicatessens, Johannesburg, South Africa
Food Control
Detection of Listeria monocytogenes and the toxin listeriolysin O in food
J Microbiol Methods
Occurrence of Vibrio spp. and Aeromonas spp. in shellfish harvested off Dardanelles cost of Turkey
Food Control
Bacteriocins reduce Campylobacter colonization and alter gut morphology in turkey poults
Poult Sci
Resistance of hepatitis A virus in mussels subjected to different domestic cookings
Int J Food Microbiol
Molecular characterization of Vibrio parahaemolyticus strains associated with foodborne illness in Florida
J Food Prot
Large outbreak of norovirus: the baker who should have known better
J Infect
Methodology for detection and typing of foodborne microorganisms
Int J Food Microbiol
Detection of Escherichia coli O157: H7 in 10-and 25-gram ground beef samples with an evanescent-wave biosensor with silica and polystyrene waveguides
J Food Prot
Detection of septicemia in chicken livers by spectroscopy
Poult Sci
Detection and quantification by real-time RT PCR of hepatitis A virus from inoculated tap waters, salad vegetables, and soft fruits: characterization of the method performances
Int J Food Microbiol
Bacteriological profile of raw, frozen chicken nuggets
J Food Prot
Escherichia coli detection in vegetable food by a potentiometric biosensor
Sens Actuat B Chem
Escherichia coli detection in vegetable food by a potentiometric biosensor
Sens Actuat B Chem
Rapid identification of viable Escherichia coli subspecies with an electrochemical screen-printed biosensor array
Biosens Bioelectron
A survey of food-borne pathogens in free-range poultry farms
Int J Food Microbiol
An optical biosensor for rapid and label-free detection of cells
J Am Chem Soc
Principles of some novel rapid dipstick methods for detection and characterization of verotoxigenic Escherichia coli
J Appl Microbiol
Detection of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in food
Expert Rev Mol Diagn
Cited by (950)
Biosensors for melanoma skin cancer diagnostics
2024, Biosensors and BioelectronicsA review of the state-of-the-art wastewater quality characterization and measurement technologies. Is the shift to real-time monitoring nowadays feasible?
2024, Journal of Water Process EngineeringDevelopment of a whole-cell biosensor for detection of pyocyanin based on a transcriptional regulation factor
2024, Sensors and Actuators B: ChemicalOn-site monitoring of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in drinking water based on rapid detection of the rfbE gene at the single copy level
2024, Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical