Diabetes AtlasDiabetes and depression: Global perspectives
Section snippets
Global burden of diabetes
Reports from the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) indicate that the prevalence of diabetes mellitus has reached epidemic levels globally. Estimates for 2010 indicate that 285 million adults have diabetes in the seven regions of the IDF [1]. These numbers represent an increase of 39 million from 2007 and an expected continued increase to 439 million in 2030 [1]. Given prevalence figures approaching 290 million, the worldwide human, economic, and social costs of diabetes are staggering.
Global burden of depression
Depression is another condition with high prevalence worldwide. Approximately 340 million people worldwide suffer from depression at any given time including 18 million in the United States [5]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), depression is responsible for the greatest proportion of burden associated with non-fatal health outcomes accounting for approximately 12% total years lived with disability [6]. In 2000, it was estimated that depressive disorders were higher in women
Screening for depression
The diagnosis of depression is based on clinical findings. Several valid and reliable screening instruments are available for use in primary care [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [20]. The 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) [20] is an easy to use depression screening instrument. The PHQ-9 is a brief questionnaire that scores each of the 9 DSM-IV criteria for depression as “0” (not at all) to “3” (nearly every day). PHQ-9 score ≥10 have a sensitivity of 88% and a specificity of 88% for
The prevalence of depression in individuals with diabetes
More than 300 years ago Dr. Thomas Willis, a British physician made the observation that there was a relationship between diabetes and depression when he suggested that diabetes was the result of “sadness or long sorrow” [22]. Anderson et al. conducted a meta-analysis of 42 published studies that included 21,351 adults and found that the prevalence of major depression in people with diabetes was 11% and the prevalence of clinically relevant depression was 31% [23]. However, worldwide estimates
Causal pathways between depression and diabetes
Evidence suggests a bi-directional relationship between depression and type 2 diabetes. For example research by Knol et al. suggests that in addition to depression being a consequence of diabetes, depression may also be a risk factor for the onset of diabetes [35]. Mezuk et al. completed a review of studies from 1950 to 2007 of diabetes and depression to examine the bi-directional relationship between diabetes and type 2 diabetes [36]. The pooled relative risk for incident depression associated
Effect of depression on glycemic control and self-care behaviors
There is substantial evidence that comorbid depression among individuals with diabetes is associated with poor diabetes outcomes such as glycemic control. Lustman et al. completed a meta-analysis of 24 studies and found that depression was significantly associated with poor glycemic control in individuals with type 1 and type 2 diabetes [42]. The standard effect size was 0.17 (small to moderate) and was consistent (95% CE 0.13–0.21). Similar effect sizes were noted for type 1 and type 2
Effect of depression on risk for diabetes complications
Diabetes complications are also greater among individuals with depression. In a meta-analysis of 27 studies including adults with type 1 and type 2 diabetes, de Groot et al. found significantly greater diabetes complications including: diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, microvascular complications and sexual dysfunction [53]. Effect sizes were in the small to moderate range (0.17–0.32). Clouse et al. found that the onset and prevalence of coronary heart disease was affected in women
Effect of depression on disability, work productivity and quality of life in individuals with diabetes
Diabetes and depression are common chronic conditions that are significantly associated with increased odds of disability [59]. In a study of more than 30,000 adults ≥18 years of age from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) conducted in the U.S., Egede found that the odds of functional disability was more than 7-fold greater among adults with diabetes and major depression compared with adults without diabetes and depression [59]. Results from the Hispanic Established Population for
Effect of depression on healthcare utilization and costs in individuals with diabetes
Recent studies indicate increased healthcare utilization and healthcare costs among individuals with diabetes and coexisting depression. In a study of 55,972 adults with diabetes, Le et al. found that patient with diabetes and depression had higher diabetes-related medical costs ($3264) than patients with diabetes alone ($1297) [63]. They also found that depressed patients with diabetes had higher total medical costs ($19,298) than patients without depression ($4819). Ciechanowski et al. found
Effect of depression on mortality in individuals with diabetes
Recent studies have shown that coexisting depression increases the risk of death among people with diabetes [68], [69], [70]. In a study of 10,704 Medicare beneficiaries in the U.S., Katon et al. reported that beneficiaries with diabetes and comorbid depression had a 36–38% increased risk for all-cause mortality over a 2-year period [69]. In a study using the first National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study, results indicated that diabetic
The effectiveness of treating depression in individuals with diabetes
Evidence suggests that recognition and treatment for depression is less than ideal, particularly in primary care settings where most patients with diabetes receive care [71].
Despite increased efforts to identify and manage depression among patients with diabetes, several important questions remain. First, does recognition of depression improve patient outcomes? Second, is recognition of depression based on a single visit appropriate? Third, what is a reasonable timeframe to determine failure of
The cost of treating depression in individuals with diabetes
Studies of the economics of treatments of depressed individuals with diabetes have yielded positive results. A recent study of the cost-effectiveness of treatment of depression among individuals with diabetes by Simon et al. concluded that systematic depression treatment significantly increased time free of depression resulting in an economic benefit from the perspective of the health plan [80]. Patients who received the systematic depression treatment accumulated a mean of 61 additional days
Challenges and future directions for treatment of depression in individuals with diabetes
Most people with diabetes who have depression are treated in primary care settings [4]. However, studies suggest that consistent recognition and treatment of depression is less than optimal in primary care settings [71]. One barrier to early recognition and treatment of depression among individuals with diabetes is the difficulty in separating the symptoms of depression from the symptoms of poor management of diabetes. For example, fatigue, gain or loss of weight, change in appetite, and sleep
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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