Les Pradelles (Marillac-le-Franc, France): A mousterian reindeer hunting camp?
Introduction
Neanderthals have long been considered lacking in terms of the organization of activities taking place within their territories. Neanderthals have long been considered unable to anticipate prey movements and incapable of forward planning (Binford, 1989); their way of life has been characterized as a constant and unstructured roaming (Trinkaus, 1986). Acquisition strategies (lithic raw materials, animal resources) were based on “expedient” responses to opportunistic situations, thus showing only a slight degree of anticipation, if any at all. In this context, Neanderthals were regarded as mediocre hunters, only attacking small and medium-sized Herbivores. Unable to hunt large Herbivores, an activity which required the co-operation of a group of individuals, they would procure big game mainly by “opportunistic scavenging” (Binford, 1984, Binford, 1988, Binford, 1989, Stiner, 1994; contra Chase, 1989, Jaubert et al., 1990, for example).
During the past 15 years, however, a growing amount of archeozoological work has altered this image and it is now widely acknowledged that Neanderthals managed to subsist primarily by hunting (including large Herbivores), possibly complemented by scavenging. (Boëda et al., 1998, Burke, 2004, Farizy et al., 1994, Fernandez et al., 1998, Gaudzinski, 1995, Gaudzinski, 1996, Gaudzinski and Roebroeks, 2000, Grayson and Delpech, 1994, Speth and Tchernov, 1998, Speth and Tchernov, 2001, Stiner, 2005, Texier et al., 1998). These archeozoological studies (particularly the analysis of skeletal part profiles) also allow us to emphasise the existence of genuine subsistence strategies within sites with different functions (Boëda et al., 1998, Meignen et al., 1998, Moncel et al., 1998, Terradas and Rueda, 1998, Texier et al., 1998).
On the other hand, in spite of the fact that numerous Mousterian sites yield faunal assemblages largely dominated by a single species—as is the case at La Borde (Jaubert et al., 1990), Mauran (Farizy et al., 1994), Coudoulous I (Brugal et al., 1996), Wallertheim (Gaudzinski, 1995), and Jonzac (Airvaux, 2004)—the existence of specialized hunting tactics during the Mousterian is still widely disputed (Gaudzinski, 1996, Grayson and Delpech, 2002, Mellars, 1973, Mellars, 1989, Mellars, 1996, Mellars, 2004, Straus, 1983). The concept of specialized hunting in Upper Palaeolithic contexts refers to the communal hunting of large numbers of animals and the processing of meat for storage (David and Enloe, 1993). The existence of this type of strategy, which requires a considerable degree of collaboration between hunters and the anticipation of prey movements, is still far from being accepted for the Neanderthals (Binford, 1982, Mellars, 1996, Morin, 2004, Straus, 1992, Straus, 1997). The site of les Pradelles, where bone assemblages are largely dominated by Reindeer, allows us to broach this topic (see Discussion, below).
Since the end of the 1980s, research on lithic tools has focused on understanding raw material procurement and tool management strategies, for example, the “approche techno-économique” developed by Geneste, 1985, Geneste, 1990, the concept of “technological provisioning” developed by Kuhn (1995), and the concept of “technological organization” (Shott, 1986). The results obtained from lithic analyses at Middle Palaeolithic sites are compared with models of settlement and procurement strategies found in populations of modern human foragers. This research, particularly where tool and/or raw material transport is considered, not only allows us to evaluate the scale of mobility and assess the limits of exploited territories (e.g., Féblot-Augustins, 1993, Féblot-Augustins, 1997, Féblot-Augustins, 1999, Geneste, 1991a, Wengler, 1990) but also helps us interpret the functional variability observable between sites. The study of transport patterns of raw materials also makes it possible to contribute to the debate concerning the ability of Mousterian groups to plan and organize by anticipating future needs (Binford, 1989, Kuhn, 1992).
Kuhn, 1992, Kuhn, 1995 introduced the concept of “technological provisioning” making it possible to evaluate the degree of anticipation in a technical system (the provisioning of individuals versus the provisioning of places). The choice of strategy (never exclusive for the same group throughout the year) depends to a large extent on patterns of mobility and length of occupation. Identifying these variables, therefore, helps to decipher the land-use patterns adopted by Mousterians, or at least to test if the patterns observed resemble modern forager models or if, on the contrary, we need to look for new models. Indirectly, it is also the ability of Neanderthals to plan ahead that is being discussed.
The results obtained from our study of the site of Les Pradelles allow us to evaluate these various aspects of Neanderthal behavior, assessing the role of this site within a system of territorial exploitation and discussing the evidence for specialized hunting during the Middle Palaeolithic period.
Section snippets
Presentation of the site and material
The site of Les Pradelles is located at Marillac-le-Franc (in the Department of Charente). The first paleontological finds date from the 1930s (David, 1935). Although a Neanderthal mandible was discovered in 1939 (Ragout and Balout, 1942), it was not until 1967 that the site was subjected to a real scientific excavation. This fieldwork, carried out by Vandermeersch, went on until 1980. New excavations have been undertaken by Maureille and A. Mann since 2001 (Beauval et al., 2002).
The site is a
Lithic technological organization
The lithic industries recovered in Les Pradelles, layers 9 and 10, have already been published elsewhere (Meignen, 1988, Meignen and Vandermeersch, 1986) and at this juncture we are only concerned with information relating to raw material procurement and management, strategies of tool manufacture, maintenance, and discard.
Methods
With regard to the skeletal part profiles, all identifiable specimens (including shaft fragments) were taken into account. The minimum numbers of skeletal elements (MNE) were calculated for the dominant species: reindeer. Teeth were not included in these calculations. On the other hand the calculation of the minimum number of individuals (MNI) is based on the all of the skeletal elements (bones and teeth). To highlight the skeletal element representation, %MAU was calculated for each skeletal
Discussion
The idea that Neanderthal hunter-gatherers demonstrated territorial organization is more and more acknowledged. Many researchers have identified various types of sites (kill and butchery sites, lithic workshops, short-term and long-term occupations) in which a range of activities (maintenance activities, extractive activities) were organized in specific seasons, even if the choice of vocabulary referring to these site types has not, for the moment, been the subject of any consensus (Conard, 2001
Conclusion
The return of the Neanderthals to Les Pradelles for exploitation/treatment activities related to communal reindeer hunting, and evidence for selective raw material management during both of the occupations studied here, indicate the structured use of regional space in which resources (both animal and mineral) are known and their potential and limits closely calculated. The production of a meat surplus for storage is an inferential argument, admittedly (see above), but one which fits well with
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