Elsevier

Journal of Ethnopharmacology

Volume 97, Issue 1, 10 February 2005, Pages 89-95
Journal of Ethnopharmacology

Pharmacological properties of citrus and their ancient and medieval uses in the Mediterranean region

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2004.10.019Get rights and content

Abstract

This paper reviews the pharmacological properties of Mediterranean-grown citrus species (Citrus L., Rutaceae), including citron (Citrus medica L.), lime (Citrus × auantiifolia [Christm.] Swingle), lemon (Citrus × limon [L.] Osbeck), bitter orange (Citrus × aurantium L.) and pomelo (Citrus maxima [Burm.] Merr.), as referred to in ancient, medieval and 16th century sources. The virtues of the species reported in these texts were compared to those known to modern science. A much broader spectrum of pharmacological properties was recorded by these early writers than one might expect. The use of the citron and lemon as antidotes for ‘poison and venom’ is recorded in the very earliest material. According to modern scientific literature the citron and the bitter orange may possess anti-cancer activity, lime may have an immunomodulatory effect in humans, and the pomelo may be useful for treating circulatory problems. Lemons might even ease hangover symptoms. Research is required to confirm these properties.

Introduction

Eight taxa belonging to the genus Citrus (Rutaceae) have been traditionally cultivated in the Mediterranean region. The citron (Citrus medica L.) was probably the only citrus fruit known in ancient times in Europe since the lemon (Citrus limon [L.] Osbeck), lime (Citrus × auantiifolia [Christm.] Swingle), pomelo (Citrus maxima [Burm.] Merr.) and bitter orange (Citrus × aurantium L.) were all introduced into Europe by the Muslims via the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily. The sweet orange (Citrus × aurantium L.), mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco) and grapefruit (Citrus × aurantium Macfad.) arrived in the West between the 15th and 19th centuries as a result of trade with British and Portuguese colonies.

This paper presents ethnobotanical information discovered in ancient and medieval manuscripts during research into the history and origin of Mediterranean-grown citrus fruits. The obvious edible uses of these fruits are not included. The information presented comes from the 5th century b.c. up to the 16th century a.d., meaning these treatises were published well before the advent of modern pharmacology. Current chemical, medical, and pharmacological literature confirms some of the uses reported by these early authors. This work may shed light on the reliability of ancient and medieval, i.e., empirical–pharmacological knowledge.

Section snippets

Materials and methods

The citrus taxa studied were taxonomically treated using the synthetic proposal of Mabberley (1997), in which the subgenus Citrus comprises four allopatric species: two tropical, Citrus halimii B.C. Stone and Citrus maxima (pomelo), and two subtropical, Citrus medica L. (citron) and Citrus reticulata Blanco (mandarin). According to Barrett and Rhodes (1976), the last three species have given rise to all the edible citrus fruits (i.e. to Citrus × auantiifolia [Christm.] Swingle [lime], Citrus ×

Results

According to Theophrastus, (1968 pp. 310–313) if the fruit of the citron tree was placed among clothes, it kept them from being eaten by moths. It was also useful when one had drunk ‘deadly poison’; administered in wine it acted as an emetic, expelling the toxin. Theophrastus also records citrons being used as breath fresheners; the inner part of the fruit was boiled to form a sauce or the juice of the fruit was squeezed into the mouth. The juice could also be prepared in other media, and then

Discussion

Recent studies suggest that both the seeds of the citron and the leaves of the bitter orange might have anti-cancer activity due to their limonin content. Limonoids have been shown to inhibit the growth of oestrogen -negative and -positive receptor human breast cancer cells in culture (Tian et al., 2001). Limonin significantly slows the proliferation of MCF-7 tumour line cells (responsible for breast cancer in vivo). This inhibitory action depends on the dose of limonin used and the duration of

Conclusions

Ancient and medieval sources report a much broader spectrum of pharmacological properties and uses of cultivated citrus species than might be expected from modern scientific literature. As frequently occurs, the more common a plant is, the less well its properties are known. In the absence of synthetic drugs, ancient and medieval physicians had to rely upon the properties of plants, in the same way that healers do nowadays, and they recognised the pharmacological value of cultivated citrus

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Florentino Fernández (Instituto de Enseñanza Secundaria, Griñón [Madrid]), and Expiración García (Escuela de Estudios Árabes [CSIC], Granada, for the translations of the Latin and Arabic texts, Belén Estébanez (Universidad Autónoma de Madrid), Andrea Costa, Jesús Muñoz and Julita Navarro (Real Jardín Botánico [CSIC]) for their help with the literature search and toxicological data, J. Hii (Papua New Guinea Institute of Medical Research, Madang) for his help with the

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