Herbal usage and informant consensus in ethnoveterinary management of cattle diseases among the Kikuyus (Central Kenya)
Introduction
For many years stockraising has been an important part of livelihood and culture in Sub-Saharan Africa especially (Ghirotti, 1996). Livestock diseases play a major role in African countries in particular because unlike in other continents all five most important livestock diseases occur here (Van Veen, 1996), with anaplasmosis and Theileriosis being endemic in sub-humid Africa (Msellati and Tachers, 1991). It has been established that animal diseases are a major constraint to livestock production in Kenya (Delehanty, 1996, Keengwe and Bekalo, 1996, Githiori, 2004). Prevention and control of animal diseases therefore have been of critical concern in Kenya like in other African countries. Although the Livestock industry in Kenya contributes only about 10% to the GDP there is potential for improved production if appropriate measures are taken in disease control. Just like in human health care the cost of conventional veterinary medicines has escalated in the recent past and has become unaffordable to most stock raisers in most African countries, causing smallholder farmers to turn to low cost alternatives. In Zimbabwe for example, ethnoveterinary medicine is gaining recognition at the expense of conventional drugs especially because of its greater accessibility, lower costs and apparent effectiveness (Mwale et al., 2005).
The use of traditional plants for management of diseases both in animals and humans is not haphazard. In Kenya for example, at Kaloleni division, a correspondence has been established between ethnoveterinary data and laboratory serological data regarding Theileriosis in calves (Delehanty, 1996). Among the Samburu and Turkana research has shown that 35 diseases, including Streptothricosis, mange, cough and diarrhoea are treatable using local remedies (Wanyama, 1997). In Trindad and Tabago Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae), when put in drinking water improves productivity and profitability of broilers (Wanyama, 1997) while Carica papaya L.(Caricaceae) latex is a successful anthelmintic in goats (Satrija et al., 1995).
Researchers and pharmaceutical entrepreneurs agree that ethobotanically derived compounds have greater activity than compounds derived from random screening and therefore a greater potential for novel products developed (Cox and Balick, 1996, Flaster, 1996). Plants that are employed in traditional medicines worldwide are two to five times more likely to test out as pharmacologically active than those randomly sampled (Mathias et al., 1996, Natarajan and Iyer, 2000). Consequently there is a growing interest in traditional uses of plants for health care among different communities especially in the developing countries.
Some of these discoveries have begun to generate research in the area of ethnoveterinary in the eastern African region (Delehanty, 1996, Heffernan et al., 1996, Wanyama, 1997, Githiori et al., 2002, Waihenya et al., 2002a, Waihenya et al., 2002b, Githiori et al., 2003, Tabuti et al., 2003, Githiori, 2004). Such research in Kenya however, is limited and has focused on ethnoveterinary practices among pastoral and farming communities in marginal areas. Farming communities in high potential areas such as Central Kenya, where many farmers have relied on cash crops such as coffee, have now turned to alternative means of livelihood such as cattle keeping due to reduced prices for their crops. The study of ethnoveterinary phytotherapy in this region is important especially because half of the 2.9 million Kenyans living within 5 km of forests, are in Central Kenya (Wass, 1995), where most deforestation occurs. For this reason some of plants used in ethnomedicine may be experiencing pressure due to habitat destruction.
In view of the rising costs of conventional veterinary drugs, herbal ethnoveterinary remedies are likely to gain importance in the management of livestock diseases in Kenya and other African countries, because most traditional healers do not charge for their services, relying mainly on the good will of their clients. Perhaps of more importance is the fact that herbal remedies are known to be broad spectrum and therefore may be a future answer to the development of resistance of pathogens to conventional drugs (Mwale et al., 2005). In Kenya adulteration of commercial livestock drugs such as synthetic anthelmintics has been established to be a common practice leading to resistance of some disease causing organisms in livestock (Githiori, 2004). Many small-scale farmers are known to use herbal remedies for controlling or treating cattle diseases. These plants and their conservation status has not been documented specifically in Central Kenya. Such documentation is likely to lead to a more directed research for novel products in veterinary medicine.
Ethnoveterinary information like other forms of traditional knowledge is transmitted orally from generation to generation and hence in danger of extinction as older people die and younger generations fail to learn the traditional way of life. The situation is worsened by rapid socio economic, technological and environmental changes (Tabuti et al., 2003). The medicinal plant diversity is also threatened due to high deforestation rates, urbanisation and overexploitation. Documentation of plants used in ethnoveterinary practices is urgent so that the knowledge can be preserved, plants conserved and sustainably managed and utilised for the control of livestock diseases. Although some of this information has been documented in some parts of Kenya, it has been shown that knowledge on ethnoveterinary medicine varies from region to region as well as within and among communities (Matekaire and Bwakura, 2004).
This paper presents ethnoveterinary medical practices in Central Kenya with special emphasis on herbal usage in managing cattle diseases. For the main cattle ailments informant consensus is reported with the aim of presenting key ethnoveterinary medicinal plants that can be targeted for pharmacological studies and development of novel products. The conservation status of the most frequently utilised plants is reported.
Section snippets
Study site and subjects
The Kikuyus are the largest single ethnic group in Kenya and account for 21% of the country's population (Sindiga et al., 1995). In the recent past new interest in traditional herbal medicines has grown in this community. This may be attributed to high cost of modern drugs, inaccessibility of clinics and the fact that traditional medicine is regarded as effective and usually is the preferred mode of treatment for many illnesses especially in rural areas (Githae, 1995).
The study was conducted
Results and discussion
This study recorded 40 plant species in 26 families as useful in traditionally managing various diseases of cattle in Central Kenya (Table 1). Of these Asteraceae and Lamiaceae had the highest number of species. The highly utilised species in this pharmacopoeia include: Synadenium compactum, Solanecio manii and Senna didymobotrya (Fig. 2). The plants commonly used in ethnoveterinary in this region include some indigenous rare, vulnerable or overexploited trees in Kenya (Beentje, 1994). Of
Conclusion
In ethnoveterinary medicine several traditional plant extracts have been found to be efficacious against some diseases causing organisms. Work in Kenya has been done mainly on chicken (Waihenya et al., 2002a, Waihenya et al., 2002b) and sheep and goats (Githiori, 2004). In regard to cattle data on important traditional ethnophytotherapy are lacking for communities especially in Central Kenya. The data presented in this paper form a basis for further ethnoveterinary research in this region
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge financial support of BIOTA East Africa during the fieldwork. Technical support in identifying of plant specimens by Mr. Simeon Mathenge of Nairobi University herbarium is here acknowledged. Our appreciation also to Dr. J.M. Gathenya of Jomo Kenyatta University for assistance in making the maps. We also thank all those people of Central Kenya who shared their information with first author (Grace) during the fieldwork surveys.
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