The impact of “physiological correction” on functional connectivity analysis of pharmacological resting state fMRI
Highlights
► The BOLD signal is sensitive to physiological noise near large vessels. ► Higher sensitivity to physiological signal in structures linked to autonomic control. ► Template-based dual-regression analysis, robust to effects of physiological noise. ► Group-level modeling of physiological rates changed the extent of morphine effects. ► Canonical cardiac and respiratory HRF filters not suitable in pharmacological tests.
Introduction
In most pharmacological resting state fMRI studies, changes in heart rate or respiration following drug administration are conspicuous enough to raise concern about the interpretation of statistical test outcomes. Some drugs (like opiodergic substances) change respiration patterns that lead to hypercapnic conditions that affect vascular reactivity. Many drugs increase heart rate or blood pressure and thus increase pressure wave pulsatility in cerebral arteries and result in motion-related spurious effects in brain regions that are in the proximity of major arteries (Dagli et al., 1999). The main concern is that global physiological responses reflected in circulatory or respiratory alterations would be associated with nonspecific changes in vascular response and cerebral perfusion that would either obscure important neuronal central nervous system (CNS) drug effects, or mislead the interpretation of vascular artifacts as true neuronal responses.
Generally, respiration- or heart-related variations are considered as nuisance factors confounding the blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) response. They might reduce the sensitivity to detecting smaller-scale neuronal effects, or might exacerbate vascular-modulated effects (Beckmann et al., 2005, Birn et al., 2006, Birn et al., 2008, Chang and Glover, 2009a, Chang and Glover, 2009b, Frank et al., 2001, Harvey et al., 2008, Shmueli et al., 2007, Teichert et al., 2010, van Buuren et al., 2009). For instance, some effects of respiration, like correlated bulk motion or change in B0 field homogeneity due to abdominal movement (Brosch et al., 2002, Glover and Pauly, 1992, Van de Moortele et al., 2002), are purely artifactual. Motion- or B0-related variations due to respiration lead to a reduction of signal to noise ratio (SNR). Various corrective actions during acquisition (Glover and Pauly, 1992, Lee et al., 2006, Noll et al., 1998, Pfeuffer et al., 2002) and in post-processing have been proposed (Brooks et al., 2008, Chang and Glover, 2009a, Deckers et al., 2006, Glover et al., 2000, Harvey et al., 2008, Jo et al., 2010, Lund et al., 2006, Shmueli et al., 2007, Starck et al., 2010). In principle, these methods apply either a band pass filter, isolate and remove an independent noise component, or examine functional connectivity with regression models that include either heart and respiration pulses (sometimes convolved with a presumed hemodynamic response function), or average CSF and deep white matter signal as a covariate of no interest.
Recently, it has been argued that physiological signals should not be necessarily treated as artifactual nuisance (Iacovella and Hasson, 2011). Respiration and heart rate are regulated on the one hand, by an interplay between brain areas that integrate autonomic, somatomotor, and proprioception; and on the other hand by cerebrovascular autoregulation that adaptively maintains oxygen levels via arterial inflow (Gray et al., 2009, Napadow et al., 2008, Pattinson et al., 2009b). In cases where an experimental condition causes a significant change in respiration patterns (e.g. in an opiodergic drug experiment), an adaptive response in different brain regions (Evans et al., 1999, McKay et al., 2008, McKay et al., 2010, Pattinson et al., 2009a) or a global physiological change in total brain perfusion might result (Kastrup et al., 1999, Noth et al., 2008). Particularly, a drug-induced change in physiology also interacts with the central nervous system through responses of autonomic brain centers (such as hypothalamus, amygdala, or the cingulate cortex) or alterations in perception of bodily state (e.g. insula or somatosensory cortex) (McKay et al., 2008, McKay et al., 2010, Pattinson et al., 2009a, Pattinson et al., 2009b). These effects constitute parts of the pharmacodynamics of drug actions, which (whether of neuronal or vascular origin) are indispensible and should not be obscured by noise-correction.
Previously, we have shown that template-based dual regression analysis is a sensitive method for model-free and objective detection of drug-specific effects on functional connectivity (Khalili-Mahani et al., 2012). The aim of the current analysis is to examine the robustness of our proposed method for studying drug-induced changes in resting state functional brain connectivity to various approaches for physiological noise correction. We will examine four aspects of physiological confounds: average change in physiological rates (which are modeled in higher-level group analysis); breathing-related chest movement (which we have used as a covariate in connectivity estimations); physical noise related to physiological motion (which was corrected using RETROICOR); and finally, hemodynamic response to systemic physiological variations (which was addressed using RVHRCOR). Furthermore, we will investigate the within- and between-subject variations in the extent and topography of physiology-related BOLD variations to investigate systemic effects on resting-state BOLD fluctuations.
Section snippets
Subjects
Twelve healthy male subjects (age range 18–40; BMI 18–26 kg/m2) volunteered for a randomized double dummy, double blind, placebo-controlled study involving three visits (each one week apart). The Medical Ethics Review Board of Leiden University Medical Center approved the study. Exclusion criteria included MRI-contraindications such as implants, pacemakers, or prostheses; any account of medical disorders that could pose a risk to subject's health (e.g. opioid allergy, positive hepatitis B, C or
Effects of pharmacological manipulations on physiology-related variations
Fig. 2 summarizes drug by time interactions with physiological variables and their impact on statistical maps, comparing effects of each drug to placebo.
Discussion
Growing interest in the pharmacological application of functional neuroimaging raises three concerns about the confounding effects of physiological signals: first, whether physiological variables should be treated as sources of noise or as signals of interest related to central adaptive responses of the brain to drug effects. Next, how to distinguish the neuronal from the cerebrovascular changes that are caused by variations in respiratory and heart rates. And importantly, how robust the
Conflicts of Interest
Authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by The Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO, VIDI grant 91786368 to SR). We thank Dr. Remco Zoethout for study design and Evelinda Baerends for her role in study execution; and Jordan Gross and Rene Post (CHDR) for assisting with the data acquisition.
References (55)
- et al.
Separating respiratory-variation-related fluctuations from neuronal-activity-related fluctuations in fMRI
Neuroimage
(2006) - et al.
Physiological noise modelling for spinal functional magnetic resonance imaging studies
Neuroimage
(2008) - et al.
Quantitative measurement of cerebral physiology using respiratory-calibrated MRI
Neuroimage
(2012) - et al.
Effects of model-based physiological noise correction on default mode network anti-correlations and correlations
Neuroimage
(2009) - et al.
Relationship between respiration, end-tidal CO2, and BOLD signals in resting-state fMRI
Neuroimage
(2009) - et al.
Influence of heart rate on the BOLD signal: the cardiac response function
Neuroimage
(2009) - et al.
Localization of cardiac-induced signal change in fMRI
Neuroimage
(1999) - et al.
An adaptive filter for suppression of cardiac and respiratory noise in MRI time series data
Neuroimage
(2006) - et al.
Physiological recordings: basic concepts and implementation during functional magnetic resonance imaging
Neuroimage
(2009) - et al.
The relationship between BOLD signal and autonomic nervous system functions: implications for processing of “physiological noise”
Magn. Reson. Imaging
(2011)