Energy density, diet composition and palatability: influences on overall food energy intake in humans
Introduction
The diet we eat has changed considerably since the Second World War. It is frequently considered axiomatic that the ready availability of a huge variety of energy-dense, palatable food is responsible for the current secular trends in obesity and attendant diseases. In the last two decades, a large amount of work has been conducted examining the role of diet composition in appetite and energy balance control [1]. We now have a clearer idea of the nutritional attributes of the diet that tend to elevate energy intake (EI). The increased availability of readily assimilated carbohydrates mixed with dietary fat appears to have some role at least in elevating EI [2]. Recently, considerable attention has focused on how the energy density (ED) of the diet is involved in these processes [3], [4], [5]. The role palatability plays in promoting excess EI is far less clear. The purpose of this paper is to consider the role of ED, diet composition and palatability in the control of EI in humans. These issues are bedevilled by what is often deemed to be common sense or anecdotally obvious relationships between ED, diet composition, palatability of foods and the amount of food eaten. Their relationship to longer term energy balance is even less clear.
This paper aims to disentangle some of these issues by breaking down the main theme into a number of discrete considerations. These are (i) the relationship between ED and diet composition, (ii) the relationship between ED, diet composition and EI, (iii) the relationship between palatability and EI, (iv) the relationship between ED, palatability and EI, (v) the importance of postingestive factors in influencing learned appetites and perceived pleasantness (palatability) of foods in the longer term, (vi) the contribution of sensory and nutritional factors to dietary hyperphagia and (vii) the implications these considerations have for people living their normal lives in their natural environment.
Section snippets
Definitions
For the purposes of this paper, diet is defined as water (g), protein (MJ), carbohydrate (MJ), fat (MJ) energy (MJ), ED (MJ/kg) and amount of food eaten (kg). Dietary fibre and inorganic constituents can also have an influence on ED of the diet eaten. ED is defined as the energy per kilogram of wet weight of ready-to-eat food. There is considerable debate as to the definition of palatability. The reader is referred to an in-depth discussion of this issue [6], [7], [8]. For the purposes of this
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the European Commission, Quality of Life and Management of Living Resources, Key action 1 ‘Food, nutrition and health’ programme (QLK1-2000-00515).
References (68)
- et al.
Carbohydrates, appetite and feeding behavior in humans
J. Nutr.
(2001) What do we mean when we say palatable food
Appetite
(1990)Why a palatability construct is needed
Appetite
(1990)Macronutrient relationships with meal patterns and mood in the spontaneous feeding behaviour of humans
Physiol. Behav.
(1987)- et al.
A general model of intake regulation
Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev.
(2002) Eating behaviour: lessons from the real world of humans
Nutrition
(2000)- et al.
Palatability and intake relationships in free-living humans: characterization and independence of influence in North Americans
Physiol. Behav.
(2000) - et al.
Palatability and intake relationships in free-living humans: measurement and characterisation in the French
Physiol. Behav.
(2000) - et al.
Hunger and palatability: tracking ratings of subjective experience before during and after the consumption of preferred food
Appetite
(1984) Palatability and the micro-structure of feeding in humans: the appetizer effect
Appetite
(1996)
Independent effects of palatability and within-meal pauses on intake and appetite ratings in human volunteers
Appetite
Sham-feeding of corn oil by rats: sensory and post-ingestive factors
Physiol. Behav.
Food preferences of enlisted personnel in the armed forces
J. Am. Diet. Assoc.
Learned controls of ingestive behavior
Appetite
Proportion of energy intake from fat and subsequent weight change in the NHANES epidemiological follow-up study
Am. J. Clin. Nutr.
Sensory specific satiety in man
Physiol. Behav.
Glucose- and fructose-conditioned flavor preferences in rats: taste versus postingestive conditioning
Physiol. Behav.
Learned preferences for real-fed and sham-fed polycose in rats: interaction of taste, postingestive reinforcement, and satiety
Physiol. Behav.
The selection of foods by rats, humans and other animals
Starch content of associatively conditioned human appetite and satiation, indexed by intake and eating pleasantness of starch-paired flavours
Appetite
The structure of meals in humans; eating and drinking patterns in lean and obese subjects
Physiol. Behav.
Variety in a meal enhances food intake in man
Physiol. Behav.
Effects of variety on food intake of underweight, normal weight and overweight women
Appetite
Energy intake, weight gain and fat deposition in rats fed flavored, nutritionally controlled diets in a multichoice (“cafeteria”) design
J. Nutr.
Variety in the flavour of food enhances eating in the rat: a controlled demonstration
Physiol. Behav.
Appetite feeding behaviour and energy balance in human subjects
Nutr. Rev.
Importance of ED and macronutrients in the regulation of energy intake
Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord.
Intake of fat and carbohydrate: role of ED
Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.
ED of foods: effects on energy intake
Crit. Rev. Food Sci.
Some suggestions on dealing with palatability—response to Ramirez (comment)
Appetite
High and low carbohydrate and fat intakes: limits imposed by appetite and palatability; implications for energy balance. A paper for an IDECG workshop
EJCN
Description and evaluation of an experimental model to examine changes in qualitative and quantitative feeding behaviour in humans
Eur. J. Clin. Nutr.
Cited by (133)
Nutritional status and nutritional intervention of older inpatients in China
2024, Journal of Nutrition, Health and AgingFast food menu calorie labeling contexts as complex contributing factors to overeating
2022, AppetiteCitation Excerpt :Thus, empirical evidence supports that the influence of food cues is moderated by calorie provision and/or energy density of the foods. Energy density has been identified as a key factor predicting food choice (Stubbs & Whybrow, 2004). According to optimal foraging theory (Pyke, Pulliam, & Charnov, 1977; Schoener, 1971), organisms have evolved to optimize energy intake by preferring foods that provide greater amounts of energy than they cost to obtain and consume.
Food preference assay in male and female C57BL/6 mice
2022, Journal of Neuroscience MethodsThe carbohydrate-insulin model: A physiological perspective on the obesity pandemic
2021, American Journal of Clinical NutritionEvaluation of energy density and macronutrients after extremely brief time exposure
2021, AppetiteCitation Excerpt :The World Health Organisation has indicated that approximately 40% of adults are overweight (WHO, 2020), due to unhealthy eating habits. The total amount of energy (calories) and macronutrients (carbohydrates/fat/protein) influence weight status, the amount of food intake, and satiation (Fogelholm, Anderssen, Gunnarsdottir, & Lahti-Koski, 2012; Hooper et al., 2012; Ledikwe et al., 2006; Rolls, 2010; Rolls & Bell, 1999; Rolls et al., 1998, 1999; Sacks et al., 2009; Saltzman, Dallal, & Roberts, 1997; Stratum et al., 1978; Stubbs, Harbron, & Prentice, 1996; Stubbs & Whybrow, 2004). In particular, it has been suggested that becoming overweight is mainly caused by an imbalance between the required and acquired energy and macronutrients (Rolls, 2010; Rolls, 2017; Rouhani, Haghighatdoost, Surkan, & Azadbakht, 2016; Stelmach-Mardas et al., 2016), possibly derived from inaccurate estimation of energy and macronutrients (Carels, Harper, and Konrad 2006; Carels, Konrad, & Harper, 2007; Larkin & Martin, 2016; Tooze et al., 2004).
Formulation and validation of probioticated foxtail millet laddu as a source of antioxidant for biological system using response surface methodology
2024, Brazilian Journal of Microbiology