Recent developments in canine locomotor analysis: A review

doi:10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.01.009

The Veterinary Journal

Volume 178, Issue 2, November 2008, Pages 165-176

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.01.009 Get rights and content

Abstract

Subjective evaluation of canine gait has been used for many years. However, our ability to perceive minute details during the gait cycle can be difficult and in some respects impossible even for the most talented gait specialist. The evolution of computer technology in computer assisted gait analysis over the past 20 years has improved the ability to quantitatively define temporospatial gait characteristics. These technological advances and new developments in methodological approaches have assisted researchers and clinicians in gaining a better understanding of canine locomotion. The use of kinematic and kinetic analysis has been validated as a useful tool in veterinary medicine. This paper is an overview of the kinematic and kinetic analytical techniques of the last decade.

Introduction

Objective measures of musculoskeletal function have been around since the late 1800s. Historically, clinical methods of gait analysis have been rapidly evolving for the past 40 years (Brown, 1986, Decamp, 1997, McDowell, 1964). Gait analysis evolution has created new sampling and analysis powers that have enabled clinicians and researchers to accurately and efficiently explore the canine gait cycle. In the last 25 years, technological advances in computer assisted gait analysis have aided our ability to quantitatively define temporospatial gait characteristics. This has assisted researchers and clinicians in gaining a better understanding of canine locomotion. With the ongoing advancement of computer technology, biomechanists have been able to develop systems that integrate methodologies using three-dimensional (3D) kinematic (motion) analysis (i.e. includes analysis of the third coordinate axis), kinetic (forces) analysis, and electromyography (EMG) all at the same time in the same system.

Subjective evaluation of canine gait has been used for many years. However, our ability to perceive minute details during the gait cycle can be very difficult and in some respects impossible even for the most talented gait specialist. During a subjective evaluation, a clinician is only able to perceive a few kinematic variables at a time, but a modern kinematic or kinetic analysis system can capture, analyze, and store hundreds of observations per second. Unfortunately, a human cannot perceive the minuscule fractions of canine gait such as rotation about the stifle at rear paw take off. These fractions of gait have to be analyzed with two-dimensional (2D) and 3D kinematic analysis systems. A human has the ability to view an animal in motion, but does not have the capabilities to observe the forces involved in gait and identify specific neuromuscular activity. Therefore, we must employ and are limited to our different gait analysis tools. The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive overview of the recent advancements in canine locomotor analysis during the past 10 years and identify future areas of research.

Section snippets

Kinematic analysis

Kinematics is the science of describing the motion of objects. Kinematic analysis quantifies the positions, velocities, accelerations, and angles of anatomical points, segments, and joints in space. Analog- and digital-based kinematic analysis systems are used to assess the kinematic variables of locomotion. Kinematic data provide information regarding the structure of the musculoskeletal system, lameness, and evaluation of surgical and medical treatments. Three-dimensional kinematic analysis

Kinetic measurement systems

There are varied forces that exist within and external to a biological system such as the dog. Kinetic (force) analysis quantifies these forces by using measurement systems to evaluate kinetic variables. The kinetic variables may include calculating peak vertical and horizontal forces, vertical impulses, strain within various tissues, rates of loading, temporal gait characteristics, and pressure distributions of the paw. There are many different methodologies and systems used to evaluate

Inverse dynamics analysis

Inverse dynamics analysis has been frequently conducted in humans with a few recent studies conducted using this technique in horses (Clayton et al., 1998, Clayton et al., 2001) and dogs (Colborne et al., 2005, Colbourne et al., 2006, Nielson et al., 2003). Inverse dynamics combines kinematic, morphologic (mass, center of mass, and mass moment of inertia), and force data in a segmental model of the limb, which yields information about the net moments around the limb joints in 2D or 3D and

Neuromuscular measurement systems

Electromyography (EMG) measures electrical signal transmission along muscle fibers at rest, in reflex contraction, and during voluntary contraction (van Wessum et al., 1999). The advantages of using such systems are that they reveal the activity of specific muscles during locomotion. The majority of new generation kinematic analysis and force measurement systems have the ability to synchronize with an EMG system. A recent study used kinematic analysis, force plate and EMG to determine the role

Treadmill gait analysis

Treadmill gait analysis is used for its ability to have a dog walk, trot, or run at a constant pace which is ideal for kinematic and kinetic analysis. It is also used in laboratories where there is not sufficient space for a gait path. Some treadmills are outfitted with embedded force plates for kinetic analysis. There has been a debate among equine biomechanists in regards to the similarity of treadmill versus overground locomotion. Buchner et al. (1994) found significant differences in

Future applications

As veterinary rehabilitation becomes more popular, locomotor analysis will be utilized to a greater extent (Weigel et al., 2005, Feeney et al., 2007). One commonly used component of veterinary rehabilitation is aqua exercise. There is little published research on aqua exercise, yet it is important to understand the kinetics and kinematics of aqua treadmill gait and aqua swimming gait. Most of the new generation treadmills are made with glass on one side so that motion can be evaluated. Aqua

Conclusions

In considering an overview of the analytical techniques of the past 10 years, we have discussed kinematic analytical systems such as analog-based systems, digital optoelectronic systems, and kinetic measurement systems such as force plates, pressure mats, and strain gauges. In addition, we have also covered finite element models, inverse dynamics analysis, neuromuscular measurement systems, and treadmill gait analysis. The use of kinematic analysis and force plates has been validated as a

Conflict of interest statement

None of the authors of this paper has a financial or personal relationship with other people or organisations that could inappropriately influence or bias the content of the paper.

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Citation Excerpt :
Similarly, studies conducted in dogs have used kinetic analysis recorded on force plates, either isolated or combined with kinematics, to distinguish between stance and swing phases and to promote correlation with the pattern of muscle activity analysed by sEMG [2,5–7]. However, the cost and necessity of proper placement for installation have limited the use of this type of equipment in clinical practice [12,13]. With the development of small and affordable electronic inertial sensors as accelerometers, many algorithms have been used for gait analysis in humans [14–16].
Accelerometers may be used as a tool for objective analysis of kinetic and/or temporospatial gait parameters; however, only a few studies have been done in small animals. Therefore, this study analysed surface electromyography (sEMG) signals related to inertial sensors (accelerometry), aiming to create a reproducible standard in dogs. The hypothesis was that the combined use of an accelerometer and sEMG sensors could be used to identify the phases of the gait cycle and that the standard data established in healthy dogs could be used to compare data obtained from dogs with hip dysplasia. These signs were obtained from two different muscles, the biceps femoris and vastus lateralis muscles, from two breeds of dogs (Labrador retriever and golden retriever), during a walking gait at a controlled velocity. After signal processing, a second-order low-pass Butterworth filter with a cut-off frequency of 6 Hz was used, and an algorithm was applied to determine a threshold value for the gait cycle phases. Then, correlations between signals from both transducers were determined. Data relating to percent muscle activity, correlation and asymmetric functions, stance time and swing during the gait cycle in healthy dogs were generated after signal processing. Signals collected from dogs with hip dysplasia fell outside of the reference intervals established in healthy dogs. In conclusion, the methods applied for signal analysis and processing allowed the identification of structures of muscular activity during the gait cycle and the establishment of normal distribution values in healthy dogs.
The influence of three working harnesses on thoracic limb kinematics and stride length at walk in assistance dogs
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Studies have investigated the kinematics of the healthy canine thoracic limb (TL), but there is currently no research to the authors’ knowledge investigating the influence of the working harness on TL kinematics. The aim of this study was to compare the TL stride length (SL) and shoulder, elbow and carpal joint range of movement (ROM) of assistance dogs when wearing three different harnesses (H1 and H2 Y-shaped harnesses; H3 the dog's original harness) with differing handle designs (A and B type handles; all dogs used an A type handle with H3, their original harness), in comparison to a standard collar at walk. Thirteen dogs were analyzed at walk in each condition: Harness 1, H1 (B-handle); Harness 2, H2 (A-handle); Harness 3, H3 (A-handle, and the dog's original working harness); and the Collar with the lead held between 20 and 40cm. A series of Friedman's analyses with post-hoc Wilcoxon Signed Rank tests compared SL and joint ROM at peak protraction and retraction of the TL. Results: The results show significant TL kinematic changes in H1 (B-handle): SL in H1 was significantly reduced in comparison to the Collar (6%; P = 0.008). In TL protraction, a significant reduction in shoulder extension was recorded for H1 in comparison to H3 (6%; P = 0.005). In TL retraction, a significant reduction in carpal extension was observed in H1 in comparison to the collar (4%; P = 0.008), H2 (2%; P = 0.005), and H3 (4%; P = 0.005). Conclusions: Differences in canine locomotion were observed between conditions in comparison to when the dog was at walk in the collar. Our findings suggest the harness handle type may result in the TL kinematic changes observed. Significant TL SL and ROM restrictions were noted in H1, the only harness in the study with a specific handle design (B-handle type). The increase in proximal TL joint ROM and a subsequent reduction in distal TL joint ROM suggests an alteration to the energy efficiency of locomotion when compared to previous literature. These results were seen only in H1 and not H2, a similar design of harness, therefore suggesting the B-handle type may be the key factor in the kinematic changes observed.
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Published by Elsevier Ltd.

ReviewRecent developments in canine locomotor analysis: A review

Abstract

Introduction

Section snippets

Kinematic analysis

Kinetic measurement systems

Inverse dynamics analysis

Neuromuscular measurement systems

Treadmill gait analysis

Future applications

Conclusions

Conflict of interest statement

The Veterinary Journal

The Veterinary Journal

Journal of Biomechanics

Journal of Biomechanics

Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice

Journal of Biomechanics

Journal of Neuroscience Methods

Journal of Orthopaedic Research

Medical Engineering and Physics

Journal of Orthopaedic Research

Journal of Orthopedic Research

Journal of Equine Science

Osteoarthritis and Cartilage

A method to estimate in vivo dynamic articular surface interaction

Journal of Biomechanics

Pre- and postoperative force plate analysis of dogs with experimentally transected cranial cruciate ligaments treated using tibial plateau leveling osteotomy

Veterinary Surgery

Kinematic gait analysis in dogs with hip dysplasia

American Journal of Veterinary Research

Multiple force platform analysis of the canine trot: a new approach to assessing basic characteristics of motion

Veterinary Comparative Orthopedics and Traumatology

Comparison of the trotting gaits of Labrador Retrievers and Greyhounds

American Journal of Veterinary Research

Comparison of vertical forces in normal greyhounds between force platform and pressure walkway measurement systems

Veterinary Comparative Orthopedics and Traumatology

Influence of borderline hip dysplasia on joint kinematics of clinically sound Belgian Shepherd dogs

American Journal of Veterinary Research

Minimum standards for electromyography in Canada: a statement of the Canadian Society of Clinical Neurophysiologists

Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences

Effect of carprofen, etodolac, meloxicam, or butorphanol in dogs with induced acute synovitis

American Journal of Veterinary Research

Evaluation of treadmill with integrated force plates for kinetic gait analysis of sound and lame dogs at a trot

Veterinary Comparative Orthopedics and Traumatology

Dog Locomotion and Gait Analysis

Kinematics of treadmill versus overground locomotion in horses

Veterinary Quarterly

Efficacy of etodolac for the treatment of osteoarthritis of the hip joints in dogs

Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association

Net joint moments and powers in the equine forelimb during the stance phase of the trot

Equine Veterinary Journal

The hindlimb in walking horses. 2: Net joint moments and joint powers

Equine Veterinary Journal

Kinematic analysis of the gait of 10 Labrador retrievers during treadmill locomotion

Veterinary Record

Electromyographic and kinematic indicators of fatigue in horses: a pilot study

Equine Veterinary Journal

Distribution of power across the hind limb joints in Labradors and Greyhounds

American Journal of Veterinary Research

Effect of trotting velocity on work patterns of the hind limbs of Greyhounds

American Journal of Veterinary Research

Effects of heel and toe elevation upon the digital joint angles in the standing horse

Equine Veterinary Journal

Kinetic gait analysis assessment of meloxicam efficacy in a sodium urate-induced synovitis model in dogs

American Journal of Veterinary Research

The evaluation of extracorporeal shockwave therapy in naturally occurring osteoarthritis of the stifle joint in dogs

Veterinary and Comparative Orthopaedics and Traumatology

Surface strains around the midshaft of the third metacarpal bone during turning

Equine Veterinary Journal

Accuracy and optimization of force platform gait analysis in Labradors with cranial cruciate disease evaluated at a walking gait

Veterinary Surgery

Effects of unilaterally restricted carpal range of motion in kinematic gait analysis of the dog

Veterinary and Comparative Orthopaedics and Traumatology

Validation of two-dimensional kinematic analysis of walk and sit-to-stand motions in dogs

American Journal of Veterinary Research

Function of the oblique hypaxial muscles in trotting dogs

Journal of Experimental Biology

A two-dimensional analysis of limb symmetry in the trot of Labrador retrievers

Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association

Review
Recent developments in canine locomotor analysis: A review