Elsevier

Vaccine

Volume 24, Issue 6, 6 February 2006, Pages 730-737
Vaccine

Vaccination coverage survey versus administrative data in the assessment of mass yellow fever immunization in internally displaced persons—Liberia, 2004

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.08.077Get rights and content

Abstract

Yellow fever (YF) is a mosquito-borne vaccine-preventable disease with high mortality. In West Africa, low population immunity increases the risk of epidemic transmission. A cluster survey was conducted to determine the effectiveness of a mass immunization campaign using 17D YF vaccine in internally displaced person (IDP) camps following a reported outbreak of YF in Liberia in February 2004. Administrative data of vaccination coverage were reviewed. A cluster sample size was determined among 17,384 shelters using an 80% vaccination coverage threshold. A questionnaire eliciting demographic information, household size, and vaccination status was distributed to randomly selected IDPs. Data were analyzed to compare vaccination coverage rates of administrative versus survey data. Among 87,000 persons estimated living in IDP camps, administrative data recorded 49,395 (57%) YF vaccinated persons. A total of 237 IDPs were surveyed. Of survey respondents, 215 (91.9%, 95% CI 88.4–95.4) reported being vaccinated during the campaign and 196 (83.5%, 95% CI 78.6–88.5) possessed a valid campaign vaccination card. The median number of IDPs living in a shelter was 4 (range, 1–8) and 69,536 persons overall were estimated to be living in IDP camps. Coverage rates from a rapid survey exceeded 90% by self-report and 80% by evidence of a vaccination card, indicating that the YF immunization campaign was effective. Survey results suggested that administrative data overestimated the camp population by at least 20%. An emergency, mop-up vaccination campaign was avoided. Coverage surveys can be vital in the evaluation of emergency vaccination campaigns by influencing both imminent and future immunization strategies.

Introduction

Yellow fever (YF), a vaccine-preventable viral hemorrhagic disease, causes infection in approximately 200,000 persons annually and is responsible for an estimated 30,000 deaths per year [1]. The vast majority of disease and mortality occurs within the YF belt (latitude 15° north to 10° south) in Sub-Saharan Africa [1]. In West Africa, the virus is transmitted in three cycles – a sylvatic cycle in which transmission occurs between forest-dwelling mosquitoes and non-human primates, an intermediate cycle in which transmission occurs between mosquitoes and both non-human primates and humans in moist savanna areas of Africa, and an urban cycle where it can cause large epidemics [1]. Urban cycle epidemics develop from anthroponotic, also known as human-to-human, transmission in which humans serve as the sole host reservoir of the peridomestic Aedes aegypti mosquito vector. Urban epidemics occur when anicteric but viremic persons who are not yet severely ill travel from jungles and savannas to cities where they infect local A. aegypti mosquitoes, a species that is abundant in urban areas and in areas where humans store water. When YF is identified in any setting, the likelihood that it resulted from human-to-human transmission or its possible introduction into an urban setting must be rapidly assessed to determine the need for emergency vaccination.

Immunization coverage of the at-risk population is an important determinant for human-to-human transmission because the potential for an epidemic increases when there is low prevalence of neutralizing antibody to YF virus from previous vaccination or naturally acquired infection. The 17D YF vaccine is highly effective and safe; Over 400 million estimated doses have been administered worldwide, with rare reports of serious adverse events following immunization (AEFI) [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], [9], [10], [11]. Monitoring AEFI during mass vaccination campaigns are important to ensure not only the timely identification of possible events which may signal compromised safety of the vaccine, but to detect potential programmatic errors that may occur when a large number of doses are administered over a short time period.

In Liberia, 14 years of civil war during 1989–2003 devastated much of the country's healthcare infrastructure and severely disrupted public health disease surveillance and immunization programs. On February 13, 2004, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared an outbreak of YF after laboratory confirmation of four cases. All cases had illness onset January 1–9, 2004, of which three were fatal. Two cases occurred in men aged 19 and 26 years living in densely populated internally displaced person (IDP) camps, settlements of citizens displaced from their in-country homes because of civil strife, in Salala District, Bong County, in central Liberia. Roughly 365,000 Liberians, one-sixth of the country's estimated population, had lived in IDP camps throughout the country since the end of the civil war in August 2003 [12]. Because of the potential for human-to- human transmission in overcrowded IDP camps with extension into the surrounding area, YF mass vaccination campaigns were launched in Salala District IDP camps and neighboring communities during February 26 to March 6, 2004 and March 16 to March 20, 2004.

Administrative data, a simple formula used to estimate vaccination coverage that divides the number of persons vaccinated during the campaigns by the number of vaccine-eligible persons estimated residing in the camps, indicated that, of the estimated 87,000 persons living in these camps, only 49,395 (56.8%) were immunized against YF with the 17D YF vaccine (Institute Pasteur, Dakar, Senegal) during the campaigns [13], [14], [15], [16]. Because validation studies to determine IDP camp population size had not been performed, a coverage survey was needed to more precisely evaluate vaccination coverage after the campaigns. We report findings of a rapid vaccine coverage survey that underscores the importance of accurately estimating the population at risk for YF to assist decisions regarding future vaccination strategies.

Section snippets

Methods

The IDP camps in Salala District of Bong County were built in 2002 and administered by the Liberian government through the Liberia Refugee Repatriation and Resettlement Commission (LRRRC). Medical services were coordinated by Médecins Sans Frontières – France (MSF-F) and food was supplied by the World Food Programme (WFP). Camp shelters were uniformly designed, each measuring approximately 4  5 m (Fig. 1). A census of the camps had not been performed. Instead, a WFP formula of five persons per

Results

One of the 260 shelters did not exist. Of 259 shelters that were visited, 22 were either unoccupied for three successive days during the survey (15 shelters) or were incomplete shelters that were not yet inhabited (seven shelters). Data were analyzed for 237 survey respondents (one person per shelter). There were no missing data from IDPs surveyed and no AEFI reported.

The median number of household members living in a shelter was four (range, 1–8). We estimated that 69,536 persons lived in

Discussion

Over the past two decades, YF epidemics have regularly occurred in West Africa [21]. In response to an outbreak in Liberia in 2004, the WHO, UNICEF, and MSF conducted an emergency vaccination campaign in large camps of IDPs after two of the initial four cases of yellow fever were confirmed among camp residents. In assessing the need for additional vaccination, administrative data suggested that less than 60% of potentially at-risk IDP camp inhabitants were vaccinated during a mass YF

Ethics requirement

The study was programmatic research in response to an emergency public health outbreak and therefore not subject to an ethical review board by CDC, WHO, UNICEF, or Medicins Sans Frontieres.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Angela Kearney of UNICEF and Lynn Thomas of USAID for their assistance and guidance in this study. We value the time and cooperation from all the survey team members and IDPs who participated in the study.

Authorship and Contributorship: All authors – G. Huhn, J. Brown, W. Perea, A. Berthe, H. Otero, G. LiBeau, N. Maksha, M. Sankoh, S. Montgomery, A. Marfin, M. Admassu – can take responsibility for the content of the paper and the conception and design of the study.

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