ReviewBehavioral neuroendocrinology and treatment of anorexia nervosa
Introduction
The aim of studies on patients with anorexia nervosa is to improve their condition, but there are as yet no neuroendocrine studies and few, if any other studies that have contributed the reaching this goal [21]. A new way to approach the problem is needed.
It was suggested long ago that the hormonal changes in anorexia nervosa are non-specific effects of starvation [62] and so far, endocrine interventions have had no effect on the behavioral condition of the patients. At the present state of knowledge, therefore, the cause–effect relationship between hormones and behavior in anorexia nervosa is unclear and needs to be reconsidered. We will expand on this topic in light of recent results suggesting that some so-called “orexigenic” peptides influence appetitive, rather than consummatory aspects of ingestive behavior [4], [49], [99]. This is a departure from the prevailing paradigm, according to which hormones from stored fat and pancreas, along with glucose, lipids and amino acids from ingested macronutrients feed back on brain networks to excite or inhibit eating such that body weight remains stable over time [15]. There are many excellent recent reviews on this topic, e.g. [39], [101], on the neuroanatomical engagement during eating, e.g. [58], [72] and of the endocrine changes, e.g. [114] and the medical aspects of anorexia nervosa, e.g. [110]. Reviewing these fields again would be redundant.
According to the conventional view, anorexia nervosa emerges as a symptom of an unknown underlying mental disorder and we have recently discussed the problems associated with this view in detail [149], [150], [151], [152], [176]. No effective treatment has been developed based on this point of view [160]. The little support that may exist for the conventional view is in stark contrast to the overwhelming evidence that starvation causes psychological change and even mental disorders. Because the conventional view still permeates thinking about the cause and treatment of anorexia, we will review the evidence that starvation causes mental problems in some detail.
We will discuss the effects of enforced starvation and subsequent re-feeding first and then suggest that the symptoms of anorexia nervosa are reversible, often physiological consequences of starvation. We will then review some aspects of the life of Australian Aboriginal hunter-gatherers, which is conspicuously similar to that of starved or semi-starved people and patients with anorexia nervosa. On the basis of these descriptions, we will re-evaluate the concept of body weight homeostasis and suggest that maintenance of a low body weight for a long period of time along with a high level of physical activity and retention of the capacity to eat large meals provide an example of a situation in which body weight is homeostatically regulated. We will then describe the way in which hormones and behavior interact in this situation; the human homeostatic phenotype. The description is admittedly selective and aims at proposing a new paradigm that does not conform to the conventional concept of homeostatic regulation. This step seems necessary, because the conventional view is incompatible with the neuroendocrinology of anorexia nervosa.
It is commonly thought that there are many risk factors and that anorexia nervosa has an unknown etiology, but this hypothesis has not resulted in effective interventions. We have considered some other problems associated with this view elsewhere [149], [150], [151], [152] and will therefore not re-consider these in the present context. Instead, we have suggested that anorexia nervosa develops from the two known risk factors: reduced food intake and enhanced physical activity [20]. We have also suggested that a reduction in food intake would cause an increase in the release of dopamine in the ventral striatal terminals of the mesolimbic dopamine neurons via both adrenocortical hormone feedback on these terminals and activation of the dopaminergic cell bodies in the ventral tegmentum of the mesencephalon [20], [95]. Release of corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) in the hypothalamus is the primary mediator of both these mechanisms [20]. The mesolimbic dopamine system is associated with the short-latency experience of reward [105]. In addition, release of CRH in the brain activates the noradrenergic neurons of the locus coeruleus in the brainstem [87]. These neurons project to forebrain areas that are engaged whenever an individual needs to pay attention to ongoing events [130], [135]. Hence, we suggested that anorexia nervosa develops because it is initially rewarding to eat less food and that anorexic behavior is subsequently maintained through conditioning to the situations that provide the reward [20]. Methods to treat patients based on this point of view were set up and the treatment was evaluated in a randomized controlled trial [17]. In this trial, 16 patients were allocated to treatment and 16 other patients were allocated to no-treatment using a randomized procedure. The number of patients needed in each group in order to demonstrate a significant effect was estimated based on preliminary results [18] and the possibility that patients may drop out was also taken into consideration. Very few exclusion criteria were used. Treatment was found to have a major effect on a series of strict outcome criteria; patients had to show normal eating patterns and perceive a normal level of satiety, have a normal body mass index (BMI), normal laboratory test values and normal levels of psychiatric symptoms, they had to be able to say that food and body weight were no longer a problem and they had to be back at school or professional activities [17]. All these criteria had to be fulfilled before a patient was considered in remission. Thus, a treatment based on a neurobiologically plausible framework was demonstrated to be effective. Furthermore, the treatment brought an estimated 75% of a group of 168 patients into remission and only 10% of a group of 83 patients relapsed within a year [17].
Finally, we will refine the framework for understanding anorexia nervosa delineated above and suggest how patients with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders should be treated, based on this view.
Section snippets
The response to enforced starvation
During the last months of the Second World War, the supply of food to the Western Netherlands was severely restricted. The consequences of this enforced starvation have been extensively studied and the description below relies on the evidence presented in the first report of this phenomenon [29], unless otherwise noted.
Before the enforced starvation, the people of the Netherlands had not suffered from lack of food as their energy intake had been about 2000 kcal/day during most of the war.
The response to re-feeding
By the time the Germans had capitulated on May 7, 1945, 141,636,186 kg of food had been stored in southern Holland and the plan was to provide 2000 kcal/day to a population of 4.2 million. It was estimated that 400,000 people were in need of special treatment for starvation and that 30,000 needed acute treatment in a hospital. About 279,000 were actually treated and 3000 of these were treated in hospitals. Two hundred seventy-five (9%) of these died in hospital, most of them during the first
Maintenance of a BMI of 17 for 40,000 years
Australian Aborigines lived in small communities and maintained a relatively constant life style for perhaps more than 40,000 years [24]. It has been estimated that the size of this population of hunter-gatherers remained stable at about 300 000, with many mechanisms to maintain stability, e.g., prolonged breast feeding along with the associated lactational amenorrhea and infanticide of as many as 50% of the newborn children. Inter-tribal warfare and perhaps infections also contributed to
The human homeostatic phenotype
Body weight is most often considered to be the outcome of the activity of neuroendocrine networks that “control” eating behavior in order to keep body weight constant. This paradigm originates with Claude Bernard’s idea that the internal milieu of an organism must be kept stable, and if it is not, the organism will be entirely dependent upon fluctuations in the external environment [22].
Descriptive versus predictive neuroendocrinology
Most studies on the relationship among the neuroendocrine system, eating behavior and body weight rely on the Bernard–Cannon concept of homeostasis as adapted to neural function [158]. As mentioned above, the model suggests that brain networks excite or inhibit eating behavior in response to feedback from endocrine and metabolic signals in order to keep body weight constant, e.g. [39], [101]. Behavior is thought of as an outcome of neural control in this model; many publications are entitled:
The neuroendocrinology of the human homeostatic phenotype: the neuropeptide Y-paradox
As described above, the human homeostatic phenotype is one with a constant low BMI, a low body fat content, a high level of physical activity and retention of the capacity to eat more than required for maintenance of the low BMI. The neuroendocrinology of this phenotype is determined by the content of body fat. The lower the fat content the lower the level of leptin in the blood [81]. Leptin feeds back on the brain and causes a decrease in the synthesis and release of neuropeptide Y (NPY) and
Resolution of the NPY-paradox, part 1: NPY stimulates appetitive ingestive behavior
When an animal eats less food and loses weight, the synthesis and release of NPY increase in the brain [12]. The immediate behavioral response in this situation is hoarding, not eating [31], [133], [141]. The first indication that NPY might have a role in appetitive ingestive behavior was provided by an observation that intracerebral infusion of NPY does not stimulate consummatory ingestive behavior tested by intraoral infusion as described above [145].
Resolution of the NPY-paradox, part 2: NPY facilitates activity-based-anorexia
A high level of physical activity is an important behavioral expression of the human homeostatic phenotype. The goal of the activity is the acquisition of food. In the present analysis, it follows that the activity equals appetitive ingestive behavior. It also follows that treatment with NPY should stimulate physical activity in a model of anorexia nervosa. Such a model is available for 46 years [153]. In that model, rats have access to running wheels and, if allowed continuous access to food,
The capacity to eat a large amount of food
Research on meal initiation and termination has typically studied situation “when food is freely available” [161] or after brief periods of deprivation and as pointed out above these models may not be applicable to the human homeostatic phenotype. An important aspect of that phenotype is the capacity to eat large amounts of food when the BMI is low. At the present state of knowledge, there is therefore limited information on the factors that allow an individual to eat much more food than
A modified framework for anorexia nervosa
Twelve years ago, in a preliminary framework for understanding the etiology and treatment of anorexia nervosa, we suggested that anorexic behavior is maintained by conditioning to the situations that provided the reward that was initially experienced during the reduction of food intake. The overlapping neural engagement in food intake and reward has since then been studied in detail [171]. We also suggested that the noradrenergic projections from the locus coeruleus to the cortex are engaged in
Treatment of anorexia nervosa
“How can we change the eating habits of today’s children? I think that these questions require more thought than worrying about people trying to clone themselves.” Sydney Brenner[26].
Our answer to Brenner’s question is: through external support. In this review, we have argued that a situation in which humans maintain a constant body weight is when there is a demand for a high level of physical activity to obtain food. Anorexic patients are captured in this situation and there is no compelling
Conclusions
This review has attempted to switch attention from the conventional model of homeostatic regulation of body weight, which is based on tests of animals with continuous effortless access to food, to one in which the acquisition of food demands an effort. The conventional model does not mimic the normal human condition. Instead, we have argued that the human homeostatic phenotype is one in which body weight is controlled mainly by external factors; the most important is the availability of food.
Acknowledgments
We thank the SDU, the Netherlands, for permission to reproduce the data in Fig. 1, the National Health Service, The Information Centre, and the Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs and Dr. F. Floud for permission to reproduce the data in Fig. 4, Elsevier for permission to reproduce Fig. 5, Fig. 11, Fig. 12, Fig. 13, Fig. 15, Blackwell Publishing for permission to reproduce the data in Fig. 6 and the American Physiological Society for permission to reproduce Fig. 7, Fig. 8, Fig.
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