Self-determined motivation and students' physical activity during structured physical education lessons and free choice periods

Abstract

Objective

Various organizations have suggested that physical education (PE) should play a central role in increasing adolescents' physical activity (PA) levels. The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between students' self-determined motivation and their PA behavior during a structured PE lesson led by their teacher and a free-choice period in which they were not required to be active.

Methods

528 Hong Kong students (mean age = 15.78 years) participated in this study in April and May 2007. Situational Motivation Scale scores were used to form high and low self-determined motivation groups. Students wore a pedometer during a 20-minute structured basketball lesson and a 20-minute free choice period, during which they did not receive instruction.

Results

ANOVA revealed that self-determined motivation and PE class environments which provided students opportunities to make choices were related to greater PA. Furthermore, the difference in PA between the high and low self-determined groups was greater in the free-choice condition than the structured lesson, suggesting that self-determined motivation is especially important when students are not supervised.

Conclusion

Findings indicated that promoting self-determined motivation may be an effective means of ensuring that PE programs are able to increase PA levels, foster self-initiated PA behaviors, and enhance adolescents' health.

Introduction

School-based physical education (PE) is a forum for teaching youth effective motor skills, psychosocial adjustment, and general health knowledge (e.g., Monti, 2004, The Curriculum Development Council and The Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority, 2007). Furthermore, various organizations recommend that PE should play a central role in increasing youths' physical activity (e.g., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000). This role is important as many youth do not achieve recommended amounts of physical activity (PA) (Sallis & Owen, 1999).

Ideally, PE can provide an opportunity for students to acquire a substantial portion of the recommended amount of daily PA (Scruggs et al., 2003). One objective based on Healthy People 2010 (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000) is for students to spend at least 50% of the total PE class time being active. However, some students exert little effort during PE lessons (Ntoumanis et al., 2004), while others avoid participation altogether (Brooks & Magnusson, 2006). These students are unlikely to gain health benefits from school-based PE programs and may be less active when they are no longer supervised by a teacher (Kirk, 2005). Thus, students' motivation may be a critical determinant of the success or failure of PE as a means of promoting adolescents' PA. The current investigation was based on self-determination theory and was conducted to evaluate the relationship between students' motivation and PA obtained during a PE lesson. This is the first study to examine motivation towards PE alongside objectively-measured PA.

Self-determination theory (SDT; Deci and Ryan, 1985, Ryan and Deci, 2002) is a prominent framework used to understand the antecedents and outcomes of PA-related motivation (Chatzisarantis et al., 2003, Hagger and Chatzisarantis, 2007). SDT allows for exploration of not only the amount of motivation towards PE, but also the extent to which motivation is self-determined in nature. Deci and Ryan (1985) suggested that motivation can be experienced at both the global (i.e., across different life contexts) and situational levels. While global self-determination impacts motivation, we were particularly interested in how situational motivation (specific to a PE lesson) and features of the class environment influenced PA levels.

Deci and Ryan (1985) suggested that behavioral regulations (i.e., reasons for participation) can be ordered on a continuum according to the extent to which motivation is self-determined (see Fig. 1). Amotivation exists when individuals lack a sense of intention to participate and feel as though they are ‘going through the motions’. External regulation refers to participation in order to satisfy external demands. Introjected regulation operates when individuals participate in order to avoid feeling guilt or to protect self-worth. Identified regulation exists when individuals participate in order to obtain benefits they deem important. Integrated regulation occurs when individuals view these benefits as being in line with their core values and beliefs. Intrinsic motivation exists when individuals participate because of an inherent enjoyment or interest in the activity. A combined score on the range of motives along the continuum provides a measure of the extent to which motivation emanates from the self and is often referred to as a self-determination index (e.g., Lemyre et al., 2006).

Highly self-determined motives are associated with cognitive and affective benefits, including greater concentration in PE, less boredom, and greater enjoyment (Ntoumanis, 2002, Ntoumanis, 2001, Standage et al., 2005). Students' self-determined PE motivation has also been associated with self-reported PA during leisure-time (Hagger et al., 2005, Chatzisarantis et al., in press) and the decision to enroll in PE as an optional subject (Ntoumanis, 2005). However, research has not examined whether self-determined motivation towards PE is related to objectively-measured PA accumulated within PE classes. The association between students' PE motivation and their PA levels is important if PE is to be promoted as a method for increasing adolescents' activity.

SDT perspectives suggest that maintenance of self-determined motivation depends in part on social-contextual factors. Specifically, a subcomponent of SDT, Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET; Deci and Ryan, 1985, Ryan and Deci, 2002), suggests that the level of intrinsic motivation experienced is dependent on whether the social environment supports the individual's needs for autonomy and competence. One contextual PE factor that may influence PA levels is whether the class takes place in a controlling or autonomous social environment. For example, PE is a context in which external control (i.e., teacher instructions) might provide sufficient motivation for non self-determined students to maintain a modest level of PA. However, when this control is removed (i.e., during free choice periods), it is likely that non self-determined individuals would decrease their level of PA. Thus, CET provides a template on which to explore the relationship between self-determined motivation for PE and actual PA levels in controlling and more autonomous contexts.

The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between students' self-determined motivation and their PA behavior during a structured PE lesson led by their teacher and a free-choice portion of the class in which they were not required to be active. We hypothesized that, compared to students with low self-determined motivation, highly self-determined students would exhibit greater PA regardless of the presence or absence of teachers' instructions (i.e., structured lesson vs. free-choice conditions). We also hypothesized that motivation and lesson condition would interact such that the magnitude of the difference in PA between high and low self-determined motivation groups would be greater in the free-choice condition than in the structured lesson.