Estimates of heterocyclic amine intake in the US population

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Abstract

HA-specific meat concentration estimates using a method that combines laboratory data to predict HA concentrations from meat type, cooking method and meat doneness were used with national dietary data to estimate daily HA intake for segments of the US population. PhIP was found to comprise ∼70% of US mean dietary intake of total HAs, with pan-frying and chicken being the single cooking method and meat type contributing the greatest to total estimated HA exposures. This analysis demonstrated significantly higher concentrations in grilled/barbecued meats than in other cooked meats. African-American males were estimated to consume nearly twofold and ∼35 to 40% more PhIP (and total HAs) than white males at ages <16 and >30 years, respectively.

Introduction

Heterocyclic amines (HAs) are potent mutagens formed at particularly elevated levels in well-done meats and fish [1]. HAs also cause cancer at a variety of sites in multiple bioassay animal species/strains/sexes [2]. HAs are found in a wide range of commercially and domestically prepared meats on the order of 1–100 ng/g cooked meat [3], [4], [5], [6], [7] and HA urinary metabolites are detected in the population [8]. Factors associated with human exposure to HAs are the consumption of meats prepared by broiling, grilling/barbecuing or pan-frying (high-heat cooking methods demonstrated to form HAs in meats) and a preference for meats cooked well done. Recent case–control studies have shown that estimated human dietary HA intakes (categorized crudely, based on self-reported preferences for meat type, cooking method and/or doneness) are associated with elevated risks of colon, stomach, lung, breast and prostate cancer [9], [10], [11], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18].

Estimates of human exposure to HAs are complicated by the absence of HA concentration data on meats consumed by the public at large. Absent such information, experimentally derived HA concentrations provide the best available data with which to estimate HA concentrations in cooked meats consumed by the public. To date, assessments of HA dietary intake have relied on such experimental data, notwithstanding up to 30-fold variations in measured HA concentrations for many commonly consumed meats [1]. Accordingly, estimates of population-average dietary HA intake vary considerably, ranging from ∼2 to >25 ng/kg per day [19], [20], [21], [22]. A major methodological difference between these assessments is the selection of HA concentrations considered representative for meats consumed by the population. Whereas some studies conducted a review of the literature and used expert opinion to estimate HA concentrations for cooked meats consumed by the population, other studies obtained concentrations from laboratory cooking trials designed to represent common cooking conditions. Recently, an approach was developed to systematically incorporate experimental data on HAs from laboratory cooking trials into a methodology for estimating HA levels in cooked meats [23]. Using this methodology, an integrated approach to HA-exposure assessment was developed for estimating dietary HA exposures in a way that reflects individual meat-specific consumption preferences, intake rates, cooking methods and doneness preferences [24]. In this study, the approach is updated with new laboratory cooking data on HAs and new US cooking survey data that characterize cooking-method preferences by race-ethnicity to derive new exposure estimates for segments of the US population.

Section snippets

Update of HA database

The database of HA concentrations in cooked meats used previously [23] was updated through a review of the literature. The database consists of studies reporting HA concentrations in cooked meats and fish that: (1) used cooking methods consistently found to generate HAs in meat (oven broiling, pan-frying and grilling/barbecuing); (2) involved common HA-forming meat types, namely, beef (steak and beef cubes), hamburger, chicken (leg and breast), pork (chop, fillet, and ham slice), bacon, and

Update of HA database

Three studies meeting the database criteria were identified from the literature (Table 1). These studies added 16 measurements of HA concentrations in chicken and beef to the HA database. Studies not added to the database did not provide sufficient information on cooking conditions and efforts to obtain this information from the authors were unsuccessful. Absence of data on the weight loss of the cooked meat was the most common reason for excluding studies from the analysis.

Estimation of total HA concentrations in meats

Regression analysis

Discussion

Our review of the literature identified many studies reporting HA concentrations in cooked meats since our previous analysis. Unfortunately, these studies did not report either IT or WL and so did not provide sufficient data for inclusion in the regression analysis. WL is relatively easy to determine and integrates multiple cooking variables such as cooking surface temperature and so offers a potentially useful parameter for normalizing different HA cooking studies. By adding newly acquired

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Carol Hood for assisting with the literature review. We would also like to thank Dr. Katherine Ralston of Economic Research Service, USDA for providing data from the FDA/USDA Consumer Food Safety Surveys. This work was performed under the auspices of the US Department of Energy by University of California Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under contract W-7405-ENG-48, with funding provided by the National Cancer Institute (NIH Grant No. P01 CA55861-01).

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