Skip to main content
Log in

Executive Functioning, Temporal Discounting, and Sense of Time in Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD)

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Clinic-referred teens (ages 12–19) with ADHD and ODD (N = 101) were compared to community control (CC) teens, equated for age and sex, (N = 39) on a variety of psychological tasks assessing executive functioning (EF), temporal reward discounting, and time estimation and reproduction. A factor analysis reduced the EF measures to three dimensions, representing CPT Inattention, Working Memory, and CPT Inhibition. Results indicated that the ADHD group had significantly more CPT Inattention than the CC group. No differences were found for Working Memory or CPT Inhibition. The ADHD group displayed significantly greater temporal discounting of delayed hypothetical monetary rewards relative to immediate ones and manifested more impaired time reproduction, but not time estimation, than did the CC group. Main effects for level of IQ were found only on the Working Memory factor and largely did not interact with the group factor otherwise. The group differences in CPT Inattention, temporal discounting, and time reproduction were not a function of level of comorbid oppositional defiant disorder, delinquency, or anxiety–depression. Results are reasonably consistent with past research on EF and sense of time in children with ADHD and extend these findings to the adolescent age group. Problems with working memory and CPT inhibition found in prior studies of children with ADHD, however, were not evident here, perhaps owing to age-related improvements or insufficient task difficulty.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, VT: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ainslie, G. (1992). Picoeconomics: The strategic interaction of successive motivational states within the person. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1998). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1999). Response inhibition in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 5, 177–184.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2000). Genetics of childhood disorders: XVII. ADHD, Part I: The executive functions and ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1064–1068.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2001). The executive functions and self-regulation: An evolutionary neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychology Review, 11, 1–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., Anastopoulos, A. D., Guevremont, D. G., & Fletcher, K. F. (1991). Adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Patterns of behavioral adjustment, academic functioning, and treatment utilization. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 752–761.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., Edwards, G., Laneri, M., Fletcher, K., & Metevia, L. (in press-a). The efficacy of problem-solving training alone, behavior management training alone, and their combination for parent-adolescent conflict in teenagers with ADHD and ODD.

  • Barkley, R. A., Fischer, M., Edelbrock, C. S., & Smallish, L. (1990). The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria, I: An 8 year prospective follow-up study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 546–557.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., Koplowitz, S., Anderson, T., & McMurray, M. B. (1997). Sense of time in children with ADHD: Effects of duration, distraction, and stimulant medication. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 3, 359–369.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A., Murphy, K. R., & Bush, T. (in press-b). Time perception and reproduction in young adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology.

  • Barkley, R. A., Murphy, K. R., & Kwasnik, D. (1996). Psychological adjustment and adaptive impairments in young adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 1, 41–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benton, A. L., & de Hamsher, K. (1978). Multilingual Aphasia Examination. Iowa City: University of Iowa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. W. (1990). Psychology of time awareness. Brain and Cognition, 14, 144–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. T. (1989). Creativity: What are we to measure? In J. A. Glover, R. R. Ronning, & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 3–32). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, S. W. (1985). Time perception and attention: The effects of prospective versus retrospective paradigms and task demands on perceived duration. Perception and Psychophysics, 38, 115–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Faraone, S., Milberger, S., Guite, J., Mick, E., Chen, L., Mennin, D., Ouellette, C., Moore, P., Spencer, T., Norman, D., Wilens, T., Kraus, I., & Perrin, J. (1996). A prospective 4–year follow-up study of attention-deficit hyperactivity and related disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 437–446.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cappella, B., Gentile, J. R., & Juliano, D. B. (1977). Time estimation by hyperactive and normal children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 44, 787–790.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, C., Prior, M., & Kinsella, G. J. (2000). Do executive function deficits differentiate between adolescents with ADHD and oppositional defiant/conduct disorder? A neuropsychological study using the Six Elements Test and Hayling Sentence Completion Test. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 403–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conners, C. K. (1993). The Conners ContinuousPerformance Test. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corkum, P. V., & Siegel, L. S. (1993). Is the continuous performance task a valuable research tool for use with children with attention-deficithyperactivity disorder? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1217–1239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dooling-Litfin, J. (1997). Time perception in children with ADHD. The ADHD Report, 5(5), 13–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, G., Barkley, R. A., Laneri, M., Fletcher, K., & Metevia, L. (2001). Parent-adolescent conflicts in teenagers with ADHD and ODD: The role of parental maladjustment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 557–572.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, M., Barkley, R. A., Edelbrock, C. S., & Smallish, L. (1990). The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria, II: Academic, attentional, and neuropsychological status. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 580–588.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraisse, P. (1963). The psychology of time. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuster, J. M. (1997). The prefrontal cortex. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerbing, D. W., Ahadi, S. A., & Patton, J. H. (1987). Toward a conceptualization of impulsivity: Components across the behavioral and self-report domains. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 22, 357–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittelman, R., Mannuzza, S., Shenker, R., & Bonagura, N. (1985). Hyperactive boys almost grown up: I. Psychiatric status. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 937–947.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, L., Fry, A. F., & Myerson, J. (1994). Discounting of delayed rewards: A life-span comparison. Psychological Science, 5, 33–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, L., Myerson, J., Lichtman, D., Rosen, S., & Fry, A. (1996). Temporal discounting in choice between delayed rewards: The role of age and income. Psychology and Aging, 11, 79–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grodzinsky, G. M., & Diamond, R. (1992). Frontal lobe functioning in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Neuropsychology, 8, 427–445.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, A., & Kaufman, N. (1993). Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klorman, R., Hazel-Fernandez, L. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Fletcher, J. M., Marchione, K. E., Holahan, J. M., Stuebing, K. K., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1999). Executive functioning deficits in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder are independent of oppositional defiant and reading disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1148–1155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, M., & Spivack, G. (1959). Incentive, time conception and selfcontrol in a group of emotionall disturbed boys. Journal of clinical Psychology, 8, 110–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, M., Spivack, G., Fuschillo, J., & Tavernier, A. (1959). Intelligence and measures of inhibition and time sense. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 7, 224–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lezak, M. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logue, A. W. (1988). Research on self-control: An integrating framework. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11, 665–679.

    Google Scholar 

  • Losier, B. J., McGrath, P. J., & Klein, R. M. (1996). Error patterns on the continuous performance test in nonmedicated and medicated samples of children with and without ADHD: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 971–987.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyon, G. R., & Krasnegor, N. (1996). Attention, memory, and executive function. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacLeod, D., & Prior, M. (1996). Attention deficits in adolescents with ADHD and other clinical groups. Child Neuropsychology, 2, 1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mariani, M., & Barkley, R. A. (1997). Neuropsychological and academic functioning in preschool children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Developmental Neuropsychology, 13, 111–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazur, J. E. (1987). An adjusting procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. In M. L. Commons, J. E. Mazur, J. A. Nevin, & H. Rachlin (Eds.), Quantitative analyses of behavior: Vol. 5, the effect of delay and of intervening events on reinforcement value (pp. 55–73). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mimura, M., Kinsbourne, M., & O'Connor,M. (2000). Time estimation by patients with frontal lesions and by Korskoff amnesics. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 6, 517–528.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244, 933–938.

    Google Scholar 

  • Montare, A. (1977). Human temporal behavior and discriminationreversal learning. Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science, 12, 232–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, K. R., Barkley, R. A., & Bush, T. (2001). Executive functioning and olfactory identification in young adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuropsychology, 15, 211–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T. (1999). The ADHD response-inhibition deficit as measured by the stop task: Replication with DSM-IV Combined Type, extension, and qualification. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 393–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., Hinshaw, S. P., Carte, E. T., & Treuting, J. J. (1998). Neuropsychological correlates of childhood attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: Explainable by comorbid disruptive behavior or reading problems? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 468–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. London: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rachlin, H., & Ranieri, A. (1992). Irrationality, impulsiveness, and selfishness as discount reversal effects. In G. Loewenstein & J. Elster (Eds.), Choice over time (pp. 93–118). New York: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapport, M. D., & Kelly, K. L. (1993). Psychostimulant effects on learning and cognitive performance. In J. L. Matson (Ed.), Handbook of hyperactivity in children (pp. 97–136). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1996). An integrative framework for examining prefrontal cognitive processes. Developmental Neuropsychology, 12, 105–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seidman, L. J., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Milberger, S., Seiverd, K., Benedict, K., Bernstein, J. H., Weber, W., & Ouellette, C. (1996). Toward defining a neuropsychology of ADHD: Performance of children and adolescents from a large clinically referred sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 150–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seigman, A. W. (1961). The relationship between future perspective, time estimation, and impulse control in a group of young offenders and in a control group. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 25, 470–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • Senior, N., Towne, D., & Huessy, D. (1979). Time estimation and hyperactivity, a replication. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 49, 289–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, G., & Brown, G. (1999). Arousal, time estimation, and time use in attention-disordered children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 16, 227–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, N. W. (1982). Comparison of cognitive tempo and time estimation by young boys. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 54, 715–722.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechlser, D. (1994). The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III (3rd ed.). Odessa, TX: Psychological Corp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, G., & Hechtman, L. T. (1993). Hyperactive children grown up (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zakay, D. (1990). The evasive art of subjective time measurement: Some methodological dilemmas. In R. A. Block (Ed.), Cognitive models of psychological time (pp. 59–84). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zakay, D. (1992). The role of attention in children's time perception. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 54, 355–371.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Barkley, R.A., Edwards, G., Laneri, M. et al. Executive Functioning, Temporal Discounting, and Sense of Time in Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). J Abnorm Child Psychol 29, 541–556 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012233310098

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012233310098

Navigation