Skip to main content
Log in

Rethinking the Role of Positive Affect in Self-Regulation

  • Published:
Motivation and Emotion Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This introduction to the two-part special issue reviews recent evidence that suggests that positive mood may play a beneficial, multifaceted, and flexible role in self-regulatory processes that cannot be explained by most current theories. First, under some conditions positive mood seems to facilitate careful processing of goal-relevant information, even negative information. Second, the relation of positive mood to cognition and behavior seems to be strongly moderated by goal-relevant features of the task context. Three frameworks (mood as input, processing advantages conferred by positive mood, and mood as resource) that may account for these facilitating effects of positive mood on self-regulation are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Abele, A. (1992). Positive versus negative mood influences on problem solving: A review. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 23, 187–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Abele, A., & Hermer, P. (1993). Mood influences on health-related judgments: Appraisals of own health versus appraisal of unhealthy behaviors. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 613–625.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashby, F. G., Isen, A. M., & Turken, U. (1998). A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition. Manuscript submitted for publication.

  • Aspinwall, L. G. (1997a). Future-oriented aspects of social comparisons: A framework for studying health-related comparison activity. In B. P. Buunk & F. X. Gibbons (Eds.), Health, coping, and well-being: Perspectives from social comparison theory (pp. 125–165). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aspinwall, L. G. (1997b). Affect and the processing of negative information. Unpublished manuscript, University of Maryland.

  • Aspinwall, L. G., & Brunhart, S. M. (1996). Distinguishing optimism from denial: Optimistic beliefs predict attention to health threats. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 993–1003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aspinwall, L. G., & Brunhart, S. M. (1998). Optimism and attention to proximal threats to health. Manuscript in preparation.

  • Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1993). The effects of social comparison direction, threat, and self-esteem on affect, self-evaluation, and expected success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 708–722.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1997). A stitch in time: Self-regulation and proactive coping. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 417–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. A. (1990). Environmentally induced positive affect: Its impact on self-efficacy, task performance, negotiation, and conflict. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 368–384.

    Google Scholar 

  • Batson, C. D., Batson, J. G., Griffitt, C. A., Barrientos, S., Brandt, J. R., Sprengelmeyer, P., & Bayly, M. J. (1989). Negative-state relief and the empathy-altruism hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 922–933.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Escaping the self: Alcoholism, spirituality, masochism, and other flights from the burden of selfhood. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blaney, P. H. (1986). Affect and memory: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 229–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, J. (1996). The biopsychosocial model of arousal regulation. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 28, pp. 1–51). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bless, H., Bohner, G., Schwarz, N., & Strack, F. (1990). Mood and persuasion: A cognitive response analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16, 331–345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bless, H., Clore, G. L., Schwarz, N., Golisano, V., Rabe, C., & Wölk, M. (1996). Mood and the use of scripts: Does a happy mood really lead to mindlessness? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 665–679.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bless, H., & Schwarz, N. (in press). Sufficient and necessary conditions in dual process models: The case of mood and information processing. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual process models. New York: Guilford.

  • Bodenhausen, G. V., Kramer, G.P., & Süsser, K. (1994). Happiness and stereotypic thinking in social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 621–632.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bohner, G., Chaiken, S., & Hunyadi, P. (1994). The role of mood and message ambiguity in the interplay of heuristic and systematic processing. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 207–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. D. (1998). The self. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, M., & Miller, N. (1987). Explanation of the relation between negative mood and helping. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 91–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990a). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A control process view. Psychological Review, 97, 19–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1990b). Principles of self-regulation: Action and emotion. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 2, pp. 3–52). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cialdini, R. B., Darby, B., & Vincent, J. (1973). Transgression and altruism: A case for hedonism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 9, 502–516.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clore, G. L., Schwarz, N., & Conway, M. (1994). Affective causes and consequences of social information processing. In R.S. Wyer & K. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (2nd ed., pp. 323–417). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colvin, C. R., & Block, J. (1994). Do positive illusions foster mental health? An examination of the Taylor and Brown formulation. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 3–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estrada, C. A., Isen, A. M., & Young, M. J. (1997). Positive affect facilitates integration of information and decreases anchoring in reasoning among physicians. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 72, 117–135.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fein, S., & Spencer, S. J. (1997). Prejudice as self-image maintenance: Affirming the self through derogating others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 31–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 20–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forgas, J. P. (1989). Mood effects on decision making strategies. Australian Journal of Psychology, 41, 197–214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forgas, J. P. (Ed.). (1994). Affect in social judgments and cognition. [Special issue]. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24(1).

  • Forgas, J. P. (1995). Mood and judgment: The Affect Infusion Model (AIM). Psychological Bulletin, 117, 39–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frijda, N. H. (1988). The laws of emotion. American Psychologist, 43, 349–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons, F. X., & Gerrard, M. (1991). Downward comparison and coping with threat. In J. Suls & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 317–345). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Solomon, S. (1995). Toward a dual-motive depth psychology of self and social behavior. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 73–99). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, K. W., Friend, R., Eitel, P., & Lobel, M. (1993). Effects of environmental demands, stress and mood on health practices. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 16, 643–661.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harmon-Jones, E., Simon, L., Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & McGregor, H. (1997). Terror management theory and self-esteem: Evidence that increased self-esteem reduces mortality salience effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 24–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartlage, S., Alloy, L. B., Väsquez, C., & Dykman, B. (1993). Automatic and effortful processing in depression. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 247–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513–524.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M. (1970). Success, failure, attention, and reaction to others: The warm glow of success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 15, 294–301.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M. (1984). Toward understanding the role of affect in cognition. In R. Wyer & T. Srull (Eds.), Handbook of social cognition (Vol. 3, pp. 179–236). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M. (1987). Positive affect, cognitive processes, and social behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 20, pp. 203–253). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M. (1993). Positive affect and decision making. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 261–277). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M. (in press). Positive affect. In T. Dagleish & M. Powers (Eds.), Handbook of cognition and emotion. London: Wiley.

  • Isen, A. M., & Geva, N. (1987). The influence of positive affect on acceptable level of risk: The person with a large canoe has a large worry. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 39, 145–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M., & Means, B. (1983). The influence of positive affect on decision-making strategy. Social Cognition, 2, 18–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M., Nygren, T. E., & Ashby, F. G. (1988). Influence of positive affect on the subjective utility of gains and losses: It is just not worth the risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 710–717.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M., & Patrick, R. (1983). The effect of positive feelings on risk taking: When the chips are down. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 31, 194–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M., Rosenzweig, A. S., & Young, M. J. (1991). The influence of positive affect on clinical problem solving. Medical Decision Making, 11, 221–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M., Shalker, T. E., Clark, M., & Karp, L. (1978). Affect, accessibility of material in memory, and behavior: A cognitive loop? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Isen, A. M., & Simmonds, S. (1978). The effect of feeling good on a helping task that is incompatible with good mood. Social Psychology Quarterly, 41, 346–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, E. J., & Tversky, A. (1983). Affect, generalization, and the perception of risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 20–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keinan, G. (1987). Decision making under stress: Scanning of alternatives under controllable and uncontrollable threats. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 639–644.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kernis, M. H. (1995). Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lassiter, G. D., Koenig, L. J., & Apple, K. J. (1996). Mood and behavior perception: Dysphoria can increase or decrease effortful information processing. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 794–810.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., & Downs, D. L. (1995). Interpersonal functions of the self-esteem motive: The self-esteem system as a sociometer. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 123–144). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leith, K. P., & Baumeister, R. F. (1996). Why do bad moods increase self-defeating behavior? Emotion, risk taking, and self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1250–1267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackie, D. M., & Worth, L. T. (1989). Processing deficits and the mediation of positive affect in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 27–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mackie, D., & Worth, L. (1991). Feeling good, but not thinking straight: The impact of positive mood on persuasion. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Emotion and social judgments (pp. 201–220). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, L. L. (in press). Mood as input: A configural view of mood effects. In L. L. Martin & G. L. Clore (Eds.), Theories of mood and information processing. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

  • Martin, L. L., Abend, T., Sedikides, C., & Green, J. D. (1997). How would I feel if...? Mood as input to a rule fulfillment evaluation process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 242–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (Eds.) (1996). Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, L. L., Ward, D. W., Achee, J. W., & Wyer, R. S. (1993). Mood as input: People have to interpret the motivational implications of their moods. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 317–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W., Ebbesen, E. B., & Zeiss, A. R. (1973). Selective attention to self: Situational and dispositional determinants. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 129–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mischel, W., Ebbesen, E. B., & Zeiss, A. M. (1976). Determinants of selective memory about the self. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 44, 92–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muraven, M., Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Self-control as limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 774–789.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nygren, T. E., Isen, A. M., Taylor, P. J., & Dulin, J. (1996). The influence of positive affect on the decision rule in risk situations: Focus on outcome (and especially avoidance of loss) rather than probability. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 66, 59–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petty, R. E., Schumann, D. W., Richman, S. A., & Strathman, A. J. (1993). Positive mood and persuasion: Different roles for affect under high-and low-elaboration conditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 5–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (1987). Self-regulatory perseveration and the depressive self-focusing style: A self-awareness theory of reactive depression. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 122–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruble, D. N., & Frey, K. S. (1991). Changing patterns of comparative behavior as skills are acquired: A functional model of self-evaluation. In J. Suls, & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 79–113). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salovey, P., & Birnbaum, D. (1989). Influence of mood on health-relevant cognitions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 539–551.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salovey, P., O'Leary, A., Stretton, M. S., Fishkin, S. A., & Drake, C. A. (1991). Influence of mood on judgments about health and illness. In J. P. Forgas (Ed.), Emotion and social judgments (pp. 241–262). Oxford: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaller, M., & Cialdini, R. B. (1990). Happiness, sadness, and helping: A motivational integration. In R. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 265–296). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N. (1990). Feelings as information: Informational and motivational functions of affective states. In E. T. Higgins & R. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 527–561). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N., Bless, H., & Bohner, G. (1991). Mood and persuasion: Affective states influence the processing of persuasive communications. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 24, pp. 161–199). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N., & Bohner, G. (1996). Feelings and their motivational implications: Moods and the action sequence. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 119–145). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (1983). Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 515–523.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (1988). How do I feel about it? Informative functions of affective states. In K. Fiedler & J. Forgas (Eds.), Affect, cognition, and social behavior (pp. 44–62). Toronto: Hogrefe International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N., & Clore, G. L. (1996). Feelings and phenomenal experiences. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 433–465). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzer, R. (1994). Optimism, vulnerability, and self-beliefs as health-related cognitions: A systematic overview. Psychology and Health, 9, 161–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sedek, G., Kofta, M., & Tyszka, T. (1993). Effects of uncontrollability on subsequent decision making: Testing the cognitive exhaustion hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1270–1281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. M., & Shaffer, D. R. (1991). The effects of good moods on systematic processing: “Willing but not able, or able but not willing?” Motivation and Emotion, 15, 243–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261–302). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J., & Lynch, M. (1993). Self-image resilience and dissonance: The role of affirmational resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 885–896.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, M. J. L., & Conway, M. (1989). Negative affect leads to low-effort cognition: Attributional processing for observed social behavior. Social Cognition, 7, 315–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J.D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1994). Positive illusions and well-being revisited: Separating fact from fiction. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 21–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E., Collins, R. L., Skokan, L. A., & Aspinwall, L. G. (1989). Maintaining positive illusions in the face of negative information: Getting the facts without letting them get to you. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 8, 114–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tesser, A., Chen, N., Collins, J. C., Cornell, D., & Beach, S. R. H. (1997). Confluence of self-defense mechanisms: On integrating the self-zoo. Unpublished manuscript, University of Georgia.

  • Tesser, A., & Cornell, D. P. (1991). On the confluence of self-processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27, 501–526.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tesser, A., Martin, L. L., & Cornell, D. P. (1996). On the substitutability of self-protective mechanisms. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 48–68). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trope, Y. (1986). Self-assessment, self-enhancement, and achievement behavior. In R. M. Sorrentino, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (pp. 350–378). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trope, Y., & Neter, E. (1994). Reconciling competing motives in self-evaluation: The role of self-control in feedback seeking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 646–657.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, J. F., Newman, J. P., & Bachorowski, J.-A. (1991). Failures of response modulation: Impulsive behavior in anxious and impulsive individuals. Journal of Research in Personality, 25, 23–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weary, G., & Gannon, K. (1996). Depression, control motivation, and person perception. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), The psychology of action: Linking cognition and motivation to behavior (pp. 146–167). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 1034–1048.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., & Klein, D. J. (1994). Effects of mood on high elaboration attitude change: The mediating role of likelihood judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 25–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., & Smith, S. M. (1995). Positive mood can increase or decrease message scrutiny: The hedonic contingency view of mood and message processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 5–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 245–271.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Aspinwall, L.G. Rethinking the Role of Positive Affect in Self-Regulation. Motivation and Emotion 22, 1–32 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023080224401

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023080224401

Keywords

Navigation