Abstract
Do parental marital conflict and dissolution influence the risk trajectory of children's physical health risk? This paper reviews evidence addressing this question in the context of understanding how early environmental adversities may trigger a succession of risks that lead to poor health in childhood and greater risk for chronic health problems in adulthood. We first review existing evidence linking marital conflict and dissolution to offspring's physical health outcomes. Next, we provide evidence supporting biopsychosocial pathways that may link marital conflict and dissolution with accelerated health risk trajectories across the lifespan. Specifically, we posit that consequential to the stresses associated with marital conflict and disruption, parenting practices are compromised, leading to offspring deficits in affective, behavioral, and cognitive domains. These deficits, in turn, are hypothesized to increase health risk through poor health behaviors and by altering physiological stress-response systems, including neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and neurotransmitter functioning. On the basis of the available direct evidence and theoretically plausible pathways, it appears that there is a cost of marital conflict and disruption to children's health; however, more comprehensive investigations are needed to further elucidate this relationship. In the final section, we address limitations in the current literature and identify research that is needed to better evaluate the association between marital conflict and dissolution and children's physical health.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Aagaard, J., Husfeldt, P., & Husfeldt, V. (1983). Social factors and life events as predictors for children's health. A one-year prospective study. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica, 72(2), 275-281.
Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L., & Syme, S. L. (1994). Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient. American Psychologist, 49, 15-24.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. J. (1991). Infant–mother attachment and social development: “Socialisation” as a product of reciprocal responsiveness to signals. In M. Woodhead, R. Carr, & P. Light (Eds.), Becoming a person. Child development in social context (Vol. 1, pp. 30-55). Florence, KY: Taylor & Francis/Routledge.
Allen, M. T., Matthews, K. A., & Sherman, F. S. (1997). Cardiovascular reactivity to stress and left ventricular mass in youth. Hypertension, 30(4), 782-787.
Amato, P. R. (2001). Children of divorce in the 1990s: An update of the Amato and Keith (1991) meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 15(3), 355-370.
Amato, P. R., & Booth, A. (1996). A prospective study of divorce and parent–child relationships. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58(2), 356-365.
Amato, P. R., & Booth, A. (2001). The legacy of parents' marital discord: Consequences for children's marital quality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(4), 627-638.
Amato, P. R., & Keith, B. (1991a). Parental divorce and the well-being of children: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 110(1), 26-46.
Amato, P. R., & Keith, B. (1991b). Parental divorce and adult well-being: A meta-analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53(1), 43-58.
Amato, P. R., Loomis, L. S., & Booth, A. (1995). Parental divorce, marital conflict, and offspring well-being during early adulthood. Social Forces, 73(3), 895-915.
Anderson, R. N. (2002). Deaths: Leading causes for 2000. National Vital Statistics Reports, 50(16), 1-85.
Aro, H. (1988). Parental discord, divorce, and adolescent development. European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences, 237(2), 106-111.
Aro, H., & Palosaari, U. K. (1992). Parental divorce, adolescence, and transition to young adulthood: A follow-up study. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 62, 421-429.
Ary, D. V., Duncan, T. E., Duncan, S. C., & Hops, H. (1999). Adolescent problem behavior: The influence of parents and peers. Behavior Research and Therapy, 37, 217-230.
Bagwell, C. L., Newcomb, A. F., & Bukowski, W. M. (1998). Preadolescent friendship and peer rejeciton as predictors of adult adjustment. Child Development, 69, 140-153.
Ballard, M., Cummings, E. M., & Larkin, K. (1993). Emotional and cardiovascular responses to adults' angry behavior and to challenging tasks in children of hypertensive and normotensive parents. Child Development, 64, 500-515.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Barefoot, J. C., Dodge, K. A., Peterson, B. L., Dahlstrom, W. G., & Williams, R. B. (1989). The Cook–Medley Hostility Scale: Item content and ability to predict survival. Psychosomatic Medicine, 51, 46-57.
Barefoot, J. C., Larsen, S., von der Lieth, L., & Schroll, M. (1995). Hostility, incidence of acute myocardial infarction, and mortality in a sample of older Danish men and women. American Journal of Epidemiology, 142, 477-484.
Baron, R. M., & Kenney, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
Benotsch, E. G., Christensen, A. J., & McKelvey, L. (1997). Hostility, social support, and ambulatory cardiovascular activity. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 20, 163-176.
Berman, M. E., & Coccaro, E. F. (1998). Neurobiologic correlates of violence: Relevance to criminal responsibility. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 16, 303-318.
Berman, M. E., Tracy, J. I., & Coccaro, E. F. (1997). The serotonin hypothesis of aggression revisited. Clinical Psychology Review, 17(6), 651-665.
Bianchi, S. M., Subaiya, L., & Kahn, J. (1997). Economic well-being of husbands and wives after marital disruption. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America, Washington, D.C.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Atachment. New York: Basic Books.
Boyce, W. T., Chesney, M., Alkon, A., Tschann, J. M., Adams, S., Chesterman, B., et al. (1995). Psychobiologic reactivity to stress and childhood respiratory illnesses: Results of two prospective studies. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57(5), 411-422.
Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371-399.
Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Cohen, P., & Tanaka, J. S. (1992). Childhood precursors of adolescent drug use: A longitudinal analysis. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 118, 195-213.
Brook, J. S., Whiteman, M., Finch, S., & Cohen, P. (1995). Aggression, intrapsychic distress, and drug use: Antecedent and intervening processes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1076-1084.
Brummett, B. H., Barefoot, J. C., Siegler, I. C., Clapp-Channing, N. E., Lytle, B. L., Bosworth, H. B., et al. (2001). Characteristics of socially isolated patients with coronary artery disease who are at elevated risk for mortality. Psychosomatic Medicine, 63, 267-272.
Buehler, C., & Gerard, J. M. (2002). Marital conflict, ineffective parenting, and children's and adolescents' maladjustment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 64(1), 78-92.
Calkins, S. D. (1994). Origins and outcomes of individual differences in emotion regulation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3), 250-283.
Campos, J. J., Campos, R. G., & Barrett, K. C. (1989). Emergent themes in the study of emotional development and emotion regulation. Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 394-402.
Castro-Martin, T., & Bumpass, L. (1989). Recent trends in marital disruption. Demography, 26, 37-51.
Champoux, M., Byrne, E., DeLizio, R. D., & Suomi, S. J. (1992). Motherless mothers revisited: Rhesus maternal behavior and rearing history. Primates, 33, 436-441.
Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Cherlin, A. J., & Kiernan, K. E. (1995). The long-term effects of parental divorce on the mental health of young adults: A developmental perspective. Child Development, 66, 1614-1634.
Chen, E., & Matthews, K. A. (2001). Cognitive appraisal biases: An approach to understanding the relationship between socioeconomic status and cardiovascular reactivity in children. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 23, 101-111.
Chen, E., Matthews, K. A., & Boyce, W. T. (2002). Socioeconomic differences in children's health: How and why do these relationships change with age? Psychological Bulletin, 128(2), 295-329.
Clark, D. B., & Neighbors, B. (1996). Adolescent substance abuse and internalizing disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 5(1), 45-57.
Coccaro, E. F., Silverman, J., Klar, H., Horvath, T., & Siever, L. (1994). Familial correlates of reduced central serotonergic system function in patients with personality disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 318-324.
Cohen, S., Tyrrell, D. A., & Smith, A. (1997). Psychological stresses in humans and susceptibility to the common cold. In T. W. Miller (Ed.), Clinical disorders and stressful life events (pp. 217-235). Madison, CT: International Universities Press.
Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A. (1994). A review and reformulation of social information-processing mechanisms in children's social adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74-101.
Crick, N. R., Grotpeter, J. K., & Bigbee, M. A. (2002). Relationally and physically aggressive children's intent attributions and feelings of distress for relational and instrumental peer provocations. Child Development, 73(4), 1134-1142.
Crockenberg, S., & Langrock, A. (2001). The role of specific emotions in children's responses to interparental conflict: A test of the model. Journal of Family Psychology, 15(2), 163-182.
Cummings, E. M. (1998). Children exposed to marital conflict and violence: Conceptual and theoretical directions. In G. W. Holden, R. Geffner, & E. N. Jouriles (Eds.), Children exposed to marital violence: Theory, research, and applied issues. APA science volumes (pp. 55-93). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. (1994). Children and marital conflict: The impact of family dispute and resolution. New York: Guilford Press.
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (1994). The impact of parents on their children: An emotional security perspective. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of child development: A research annual (pp. 167-208). Jessica Kinysley Publishers: London & Bristol, PA.
Cummings, E. M., Davies, P. T., & Campbell, S. M. (2000). Developmental psychopathology and family process. New York: Guilford Press.
Cummings, E. M., Davies, P. T., & Simpson, K. S. (1994). Marital conflict, gender, and children's appraisals and coping efficacy as mediators of child adjustment. Journal of Family Psychology, 8, 141-149.
Cummings, E. M., & El-Sheikh, M. (1991). Children's coping with angry environments: A process-oriented approach. In E. M. Cummings, A. L. Greene, & K. H. Karraker, (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology: Perspectives on stress and coping (pp. 131-150). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cummings, E. M., Iannotti, R. J., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1985). Influence of conflict between adults on the emotions and aggression of young children. Developmental Psychology, 21(3), 495-507.
Cummings, E. M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1992). Emotions and the socialization of aggression: Adults' angry behavior and children's arousal and aggression. In A. Fraczek & H. Zumkley (Eds.), Socialization and aggression (pp. 61-84). New York: Springer-Verlag.
Cummings, J. S., Pellegrini, D., Notarius, C., & Cummings, E. M. (1989). Children's responses to angry adult behavior as a function of marital distress and history of interparent hostility. Child Development, 52, 1035-1043.
Cummings, P. T., & Davies, M. (2002). Effects of marital conflict on children: Recent advances and emerging themes in process-oriented research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 31-63.
David, C., Steele, R., Forehand, R., & Armistead, L. (1996). The role of family conflict and marital conflict in adolescent functioning. Journal of Family Violence, 11, 81-91.
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 387-411.
Davies, P. T., Myers, R. L., Cummings, E. M., & Heindel, S. (1999). Adult conflict history and children's subsequent responses to conflict: An experimental test. Journal of Family Psychology, 13(4), 610-628.
Davis, M. C., Matthews, K. A., & McGrath, C. E. (2000). Hostile attitudes predict elevated vascular resistance during interpersonal stress in men and women. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 17-25.
Dawson, D. A. (1991). Family structure and children's health and well-being: Data from the 1988 National Health Interview Survey on Child Health. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 573-584.
de Goede, M., & Spruijt, E. (1996). Effects of parental divorce and youth unemployment on adolescent health. Patient Education and Counseling, 29, 269-276.
Demo, D. H., & Cox, M. J. (2000). Families with young children: A review of research in the 1990s. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 876-895.
Dodge, K. A. (1980). Social cognition and children's aggressive behavior. Child Development, 51, 162-170.
Dodge, K. A., & Crick, N. R. (1990). Social information-processing bases of aggressive behavior in children. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16(1), 8-22.
Donchin, Y., Constantini, S., Szold, A., Byrne, A. A., & Porges, S. W. (1992). Cardiac vagal tone predicts outcome in neurosurgical patients. Critical Care Medicine, 20, 942-949.
Doussard-Roosevelt, J. A., & Porges, S. W. (1999). The role of neurobehavioral organization in stress responses: A polyvagal model. In M. Lewis & D. Ramsey (Eds.), Soothing and stress (pp. 57-76). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Duncan, G. J. (1996). Income dynamics and health. International Journal of Health Services, 26, 419-444.
Duszynski, K. R., Shaffer, J. W., & Thomas, C. B. (1981). Neoplasm and traumatic events in childhood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 327-331.
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Murphy, B. C., Guthrie, I. K., Jones, S., et al. (1997). Contemporaneous and longitudinal prediction of children's social functioning from regulation and emotionality. Child Development, 68(4), 642-664.
El-Sheikh, M. (1994). Children's emotional and physiological responses to interadult angry behavior: The role of history of interparental hostility. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22(6), 661-678.
El-Sheikh, M., & Harger, J. (2001). Appraisals of marital conflict and children's adjustment, health, and physiological reactivity. Developmental Psychology, 37(6), 875-885.
El-Sheikh, M., Harger, J., & Whitson, S. M. (2001). Exposure to interparental conflict and children's adjustment and physical health: The moderating role of vagal tone. Child Development, 72(6), 1617-1636.
Emery, R. E. (1988). Marriage, divorce, and children's adjustment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Everson, S. A., George, K. A., Goldberg, D. E., Lakka, T. A., Sivenius, J., & Salonen, J. T. (1999). Anger expression and incident stroke: Prospective evidence from the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease Study. Stroke, 30, 523-528.
Fagot-Campagna, A. (2000). Emergence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in children: Epidemiological evidence. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism, 13(Suppl. 6), 1395-1402.
Feldman, S. S., Fisher, L., & Seitel, L. (1997). The effect of parents' marital satisfaction on young adults' adaptation: A longitudinal study. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7(1), 55-80.
Fincham, F. D., Grych, J. H., & Osborne, L. N. (1994). Does marital conflict cause child maladjustment? Directions and challenges for longitudinal research. Journal of Family Psychology, 8, 128-140.
Fisher, P. A., Gunnar, M. R., Chamberlain, P., & Reid, J. B. (2000). Preventive intervention for maltreated preschool children: Impact on children's behavior, neuroendocrine activity, and foster parent functioning. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(11), 1356-1364.
Fletcher, A. C., & Jefferies, B. C. (1999). Parental mediators of associations between perceived authoritative parenting and early adolescent substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 19, 465-487.
Flinn, M. V., & England, B. G. (1997). Social economics of childhood glucocorticoid stress response and health. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 102(1), 33-53.
Flory, J. D., Matthews, K. A., & Owens, J. F. (1998). A social information processing approach to dispositional hostility: Relationships with mood and blood pressure elevations at work. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 17, 491-504.
Fox, N. (1989). Psychophysiological correlates of emotional security during the first year of life. Developmental Psychology, 25, 364-372.
Frost, A. K., & Pakiz, B. (1990). The effects of marital disruption on adolescents: Time as a dynamic. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60, 544-555.
Gallo, L. C., & Matthews, K. A. (2003). Understanding the association between socioeconomic status and health: Do negative emotions play a role? Psychological Bulletin, 129, 10-51.
Gallo, L. C., & Smith, T. W. (1999). Patterns of hostility and social support: Conceptualizing psychosocial risk factors as characteristics of the person and the environment. Journal of Research in Personality, 33, 281-310.
Gottman, J. M., & Katz, L. F. (1989). Effects of marital discord on young children's peer interaction and health. Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 373-381.
Gottman, J. M., Katz, L. F., & Hooven, C. (1996). Parental meta-emotion philosophy and the emotional life of families: Theoretical models and preliminary data. Journal of Family Psychology, 10(3), 243-268.
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and child's adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 267-290.
Guidubaldi, J., & Cleminshaw, H. K. (1985). Divorce, family health, and child adjustment. Journal of Applied Family and Child Studies, 34(1), 35-41.
Gunnar, M. R. (1998). Quality of early care and buffering of neuroendocrine stress reactions: Potential effects on the developing human brain. Preventive Medicine, 27(2), 208-211.
Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (2002). Social regulation of the cortisol levels in early human development. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27(1–2), 199-220.
Gunnar, M. R., Gonzalez, C. A., Goodlin, B. L., & Levine, S. (1981). Behavioral and pituitary–adrenal responses during a prolonged separation period in infant rhesus macaques. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 6(1), 65-75.
Guyll, M., & Contrada, R. J. (1998). Trait hostility and ambulatory cardiovascular activity: Responses to social interaction. Health Psychology, 17, 30-39.
Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 64-105.
Hawkins, J. D., Graham, J. W., Maguin, E., Abbott, R., Hill, K. G., & Catalano, R. F. (1997). Exploring the effects of age of alcohol use initiation and psychosocial risk factors on subsequent alcohol misuse. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 58, 280-290.
Hawkins, J. D., Lishner, D. M., Catalano, R. F., & Howard, M. O. (1985). Childhood predictors of adolescent substance abuse: Toward an empirically grounded theory. Journal of Children in a Contemporary Society, 18(1–2), 11-48.
Heaton, T. B., & Jacobson, C. K. (1994). Race differences in changing family demographics in the late 1980s. Journal of Family Issues, 15, 290-308.
Heim, C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: Preclinical and clinical studies. Biological Psychiatry, 49(12), 1023-1039.
Herbert, T. B., & Cohen, S. (1993). Depression and immunity: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 472-486.
Hetherington, E. M. (1989). Coping with family transitions: Winners, losers, and survivors. Child Development, 60, 1-14.
Hetherington, E. M. (1991). Families, lies, and videotapes. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 1, 323-348.
Hetherington, E. M., & Stanley-Hagan, M. (1999). The adjustment of children with divorced parents: A risk and resiliency perspective. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 129-140.
Hetherington, E. M. (1993). An overview of the Virginia longitudinal study of divorce and remarriage with a focus on early adolescence. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 39-56.
Hetherington, E. M., Bridges, M., & Insabella, G. M. (1998). What matters? What does not? Five perspectives on the association between marital transitions and children's adjustment. American Psychologist, 53, 167-184.
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M., & Cox, R. (1985). Long-term effects of divorce and remarriage on the adjustment of children. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 518-530.
Higginbotham, J. C., Baranowski, T., Puhl, J., & Greaves, K. A. (1991). Ethnicity, gender, and Type A differences in resting heart rate and blood pressure among young children. Ethnicity and Disease, 1, 123-134.
Higley, J. D., & Bennett, A. J. (1999). Central nervous system serotonin and personality as variables contributing to excessive alcohol consumption in nonhuman primates. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 34, 402-418.
Higley, J. D., Suomi, S. J., & Linnoila, M. (1992). A longitudinal assessment of CSF monoamine metabolite and plasma cortisol concentrations in young rhesus monkeys. Biological Psychiatry, 32(2), 127-145.
Higley, J. D., Suomi, S. J., & Linnoila, M. (1996). A nonhuman primate model of type II excessive alcohol consumption? Part 1. Low cerebrospinal fluid 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid concentrations and diminished social competence correlate with excessive alcohol consumption. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 20(4), 629-642.
House, J. S., Landis, K. R., & Umberson, D. (1988). Social relationships and health. Science, 241, 540-545.
Howes, P., & Markman, H. (1989). Marital quality and child functioning: A longitudinal investigation. Child Development, 60, 1044-1051.
Idler, E. L., & Benyamini, Y. (1997). Self-rated health and mortality: A review of twenty-seven community studies. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32, 221-237.
Jackson, C., Henriksen, L., & Dickinson, D. (1999). Alcohol-specific socialization, parenting behaviors and alcohol use by children. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 60, 362-367.
Jacobson, K. C., & Crockett, L. J. (2000). Parental monitoring and adolescent adjustment: An ecological perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 65-97.
Jenkins, J. (2000). Marital conflict and children's emotions: The development of an anger organization. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62(3), 723-736.
Jenkins, C. D., Krager, B. E., Rose, R. M., & Hurst, M. W. (1980). Use of a monthly health review to ascertain illness and injuries. American Journal of Public Health, 70, 82-84.
Jessor, R. (1984). Adolescent development and behavioral health. In J. D. Matarazzo, & S. M. Weiss, J. A. Herd, & N. E. Miller, & S. M. Weiss (Eds.), Behavioral health: A handbook of health enhancement and disease prevention (pp. 69-90). New York: Wiley.
Johnson, E. O., Kamilaris, T. C., Calogero, A. E., Gold, P. W., & Chrousos, G. P. (1996). Effects of early parenting on growth and development in a small primate. Pediatric Research, 39(6), 999-1005.
Jouriles, E. N., & LeCompte, S. H. (1991). Husbands' aggression towards wives and mothers' and fathers' aggression toward children: Moderating effects of child gender. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 190-192.
Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1995). Vagal tone protects children from marital conflict. Development and Psychopathology, 7(1), 83-92.
Katz, L. F., & Gottman, J. M. (1997). Buffering children from marital conflict and dissolution. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26(2), 157-171.
Kawachi, I., Sparrow, D., Vokonas, P. S., & Weiss, S. T. (1994). Symptoms of anxiety and risk of coronary heart disease: The normative aging study. Circulation, 90, 2225-2229.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Cacioppo, J. T., Malarkey, W. B., & Glaser, R. (1992). Acute psychological stressors and short-term immune changes: What, why, for whom, and to what extent? Psychosomatic Medicine, 54, 680-685.
Knutson, J. F., Schartz, H. A., & Zaidi, L. Y. (1991). Victim risk factors in the physical abuse of children. In R. E. Baenninger (Ed.), Targets of violence and aggression. Advances in psychology (Vol. 76, pp. 103-157). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Krantz, D. S., & Manuck, S. B. (1984). Acute psychophysiologic reactivity and risk of cardiovascular disease: A review and methodologic critique. Psychological Bulletin, 96(3), 435-464.
Krantz, D. S., & McCeney, M. K. (2002). Effects of psychological and social factors on organic disease: A critical assessment of research on coronary heart disease. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 341-369.
Krishnakumar, A., & Buehler, C. (2000). Interparental conflict and parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 49, 25-44.
Kubzansky, L. D., Kawachi, I., Weiss, S. T., & Sparrow, D. (1998). Anxiety and coronary heart disease: A synthesis of epidemiological, psychological, and experimental evidence. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 20, 47-58.
Kumanyika, S. K., & Golden, P. M. (1991). Cross-sectional differences in health status in US racial/ethnic minority groups: Potential influence of temporal changes, disease, and life-style transitions. Ethnicity and Disease, 1(1), 50-59.
Lau, R. R., Quadrel, M. J., & Hartman, K. A. (1990). Development and change of young adults' preventive health beliefs and behavior: Influence from parents and peers. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31, 240-259.
LeMarquand, D., Pihl, R. O., & Benkelfat, C. (1994). Serotonin and alcohol intake, abuse, and dependence: Clinical evidence. Biological Psychiatry, 36, 326-337.
Lissau, I., & Sorensen, T. I. (1994). Parental neglect during childhood and increased risk of obesity in young adulthood. Lancet, 343, 324-327.
Long, N., & Forehand, R. (1987). The effects of parental divorce and parental conflict on children: An overview. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 8(5), 292-296.
Luecken, L. J. (1998). Childhood attachment and loss experiences affect adult cardiovascular and cortisol function. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60(6), 765-772.
Lundberg, O. (1993). The impact of childhood living conditions on illness and mortality in adulthood. Social Science and Medicine, 36, 1047-1052.
Lynch, J. W., Kaplan, G. A., & Shema, S. J. (1997). Cumulative impact of sustained economic hardship on physical, cognitive, psychological, and social functioning. New England Journal of Medicine, 337, 1889-1895.
Lynch, J. W., Smith, G. D., Kaplan, G. A., & House, J. S. (2000). Income inequality and mortality: Importance to health of individual income, psychosocial environment, or material conditions. BMJ, 320, 1200-1204.
Maier, E. H., & Lachman, M. E. (2000). Consequences of early parental loss and separation for health and well-being in midlife. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 183-189.
Mannino, D. M., Homa, D. M., Akinbami, L. J., Moorman, J. E., Gwynn, C., & Redd, S. C. (2002). Surveillance for asthma—United States, 1980—1999. USA: Division of Environmental Hazards and Health Effects, National Center for Environmental Health, USA.
Manuck, S. B., Flory, J. D., McCaffery, J. M., Matthews, K. A., Mann, J. J., & Muldoon, M. F. (1998). Aggression, impulsivity, and central nervous system serotonergic responsivity in a nonpatient sample. Neuropsychopharmacology, 19, 287-299.
Matthews, K. A., Kiefe, C. I., Lewis, C. E., Liu, K., Sidney, S., & Yunis, C. (2002). Socioeconomic trajectories and incident hypertension in a biracial cohort of young adults. Hypertension, 39, 772-776.
Mauldon, J. (1990). The effect of marital disruption on children's health. Demography, 27(3), 431-446.
McEwen, B. S. (2001). From molecules to mind. Stress, individual differences, and the social environment. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 935, 42-49.
McLanahan, S. S. (1999). Father absence and the welfare of children. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed)., Coping with divorce, single parenting, and remarriage: A risk and resiliency perspective. (pp. 117-145). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
McLanahan, S., & Sandefur, G. (1994). Growing up with a single parent: What hurts, what helps? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
McLeod, J. D. (1991). Childhood parental loss and adult depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32, 205-220.
McLoyd, V. C., Harper, C. I., & Copeland, N. L. (2001). Ethnic minority status, interparental conflict, and child adjustment. In J. H. Grych & F. D. Fincham, (Eds.), Interparental conflict and child development: Theory, research, and applications (pp. 98-125). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mechanic, D. (1980). The experience and reporting of common physical complaints. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 146-155.
Mechanic, D., & Hansell, S. (1989). Divorce, family conflict, and adolescents' well-being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 105-116.
Metzler, C. W., Noell, J., Biglan, A., Ary, D., & Smolkowski, K. (1994). The social context for risky sexual behavior among adolescents. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 17, 419-438.
Miller, D. B., & O'Callaghan, J. P. (2002). Neuroendocrine aspects of the response to stress. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 51(6, Suppl. 1), 5-10.
Neumark-Sztainer, D., Story, M., Hannan, P. J., & Croll, J. (2002). Overweight status and eating patterns among adolescents: Where do youths stand in comparison with the healthy people 2010 objectives? American Journal of Public Health, 92(5), 844-851.
O'Connor, T. G., Caspi, A., DeFries, J. C., & Plomin, R. (2000). Are associations between parental divorce and children's adjustment genetically mediated? An adoption study. Developmental Psychology, 36(4), 429-437.
O'Connor, T. G., Davies, L., Dunn, J., & Golding, J. (2000). Distribution of accidents, injuries, and illnesses by family type. ALSPAC Study Team. Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and childhood. Pediatrics, 106(5), 1-6.
Orts, K., Sheridan, J. F., Robinson-Whelen, S., Glaser, R., Malarkey, W. B., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (1995). The reliability and validity of a structured interview for the assessment of infectious illness. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 18, 517-530.
Parker, J. G., & Asher, S. R. (1987). Peer relations and later personal adjustment: Are low-accepted children at risk? Psychological Bulletin, 102, 335-389.
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia Press.
Peters, E. (1988). Retrospective versus panel data in analyzing life-cycle events. Journal of Human Resources, 23, 439-513.
Pine, D. S., Wasserman, G. A., Coplan, J., Fried, J. A., Huang, Y. Y., Kassir, S., et al. (1996). Platelet serotonin 2A (5-HT2A) receptor characteristics and parenting factors for boys at risk for delinquency: A preliminary report. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(4), 538-544.
Plomin, R., & Crabbe, J. (2000). DNA. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 806-828.
Porges, S. W. (1992). Vagal tone: A physiologic marker of stress vulnerability. Pediatrics, 90, 498-504.
Porges, S. W., Doussard-Roosevelt, J. A., Portales, A. L., & Greenspan, S. I. (1996). Infant regulation of the vagal “brake” predicts child behavior problems: A psychobiological model of social behavior. Developmental Psychobiology, 29, 697-712.
Porter, B., & O'Leary, K. D. (1980). Marital discord and childhood behavior problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 8, 287-295.
Power, C., Manor, O., & Matthews, S. (1999). The duration and timing of exposure: Effects of socioeconomic environment on adult health. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1059-1065.
Räikkönen, K., Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L., Adlercreutz, H., & Hautanen, A. (1996). Psychosocial stress and the insulin resistance syndrome. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 45, 1533-1538.
Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., Seeman, T. E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health of offspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 330-366.
Romelsjo, A., Kaplan, G. A., Cohen, R. D., Allebeck, P., & Andreasson, S. (1992). Protective factors and social risk factors for hospitalization and mortality amoung young men. American Journal of Epidemiology, 135(6), 649-658.
Ross, C. E., & Duff, R. S. (1982). Medical care, living conditions, and children's well-being. Social Forces, 61, 456-474.
Rossow, I., & Rise, J. (1994). Concordance of parental and adolescent health behaviors. Social Science and Medicine, 38, 1299-1305.
Rozanski, A., Blumenthal, J. A., & Kaplan, J. (1999). Impact of psychological factors on the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and implications for therapy. Circulation, 99, 2192-2217.
Russek, L. G., & Schwartz, G. E. (1997). Feelings of parental caring predict health status in midlife: A 35-year follow-up of the Harvard Mastery of Stress Study. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 20(1), 1-13.
Rutter, M. (1987). Continuities and discontinuities from infancy. In J. Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook of infant development (2nd ed., pp. 1256-1296). New York: Wiley.
Rutter, M. (1991). Protective factors: Independent or interactive? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30(1), 151-152.
Schwartz, J. E., Friedman, H. S., Tucker, J. S., Tomlinson-Keasey, C., Wingard, D. L., & Criqui, M. H. (1995). Sociodemographic and psychosocial factors in childhood as predictors of adult mortality. American Journal of Public Health, 85, 1237-1245.
Shaffer, J. W., Duszynski, K. R., & Thomas, C. B., (1982). Family attitudes in youth as a possible precursor of cancer among physicians: A search for explanatory mechanisms. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 5, 143-163.
Shaw, D. S., Winslow, E. B., & Flanagan, C. (1999). A prospective study of the effects of marital status and family relations on young children's adjustment among African American and European American families. Child Development, 70(3), 742-755.
Smith, T. W. (1995). Assessment and modification of coronary-prone behavior: A transactional view of the person in social context. In A. J. Goreczny (Ed.), Handbook of health and rehabilitation psychology. New York: Plenum.
Snyder, J. R. (1998). Marital conflict and child adjustment: What about gender? Developmental Review, 18, 390-420.
Spoont, M. R. (1992). Modulatory role of serotonin in neural information processing: Implications for human psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 330-350.
Spruijt, E., & de Goede, M. (1997). Transitions in family structure and adolescent well-being. Adolescence, 32, 897-911.
Steinberg, M. S., & Dodge, K. A. (1983). Attributional bias in aggressive adolescent boys and girls. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 1(4), 312-321.
Stocker, C. M., & Youngblade, L. (1999). Marital conflict and parental hostility: Links with children's sibling and peer relationships. Journal of Family Psychology, 13(4), 598-609.
Stott, D. H. (1973). Follow-up study from birth of the effects of prenatal stresses. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 15, 770-787.
Sweeting, H., & West, P. (1995). Family life and health in adolescence: A role for culture in the health inequalities debate? Social Science and Medicine, 40, 163-175.
Taylor, J., Carlson, S. R., Iacono, W. G., Lykken, D. T., & McGue, M. (1999). Individual differences in electrodermal responsivity to predictable aversive stimuli and substance abuse. Psychophysiology, 36, 193-198.
Taylor, S. E., Repetti, R. L., & Seeman, T. (1997). What is an unhealthy environment and how does it get under the skin? Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 411-447.
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 250-283.
Torres, A., Evans, W. D., Pathak, S., & Vancil, C. (2001). Family structure influences cardiovascular reactivity in college students. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 34(3–4), 161-177.
Tucker, J. S., Friedman, H. S., Schwartz, J. E., Criqui, M. H., Tomlinson-Keasey, C., Wingard, D. L., (1997). Parental divorce: Effects on individual behavior and longevity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 381-391.
Vitaliano, P. P., Scanlan, J. M., Krenz, C., & Fujimoto, W. (1996). Insulin and glucose: Relationships with hassles, anger, and hostility in nondiabetic older adults. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58, 489-499.
Wallerstein, J. S., & Kelly, J. B. (1980). Surviving the breakup: How children and parents cope with divorce. New York: Basic Books.
Watson, D., & Pennebaker, J. W. (1989). Health complaints, stress, and distress: Exploring the central role of negative affectivity. Psychological Review, 96, 234-254.
Werner, E. E. (1989, April). Children of the garden island. Scientific American, pp. 106-111.
Wickrama, K. A. S., Lorenz, F. O., & Conger, R. D. (1997). Parental support and adolescent physical health status: A latent growth-curve analysis. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38(2), 149-163.
Wills, T. A., & Shiffman, S. (1985). Coping and substance use: A conceptual framework. In S. Shiffman & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Coping and substance use (pp. 3-24). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Wuslin, L. R., Valliant, G. E., & Wells, V. E. (1999). A systematic review of the mortality of depression. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61, 6-17.
Zill, N., Morrison, D. R., & Coiro, M. J. (1993). Long-term effects of parental divorce on parent–child relationships, adjustment, and achievement in young adulthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 7, 91-103.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Troxel, W.M., Matthews, K.A. What Are the Costs of Marital Conflict and Dissolution to Children's Physical Health?. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 7, 29–57 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CCFP.0000020191.73542.b0
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CCFP.0000020191.73542.b0