Abstract
This paper reviews and evaluates the literatures on children in families that are homeless and on adolescents who are homeless on their own. After presenting several emerging theoretical approaches, we propose a broad ecological–developmental perspective that recognizes that, although persons in these groups often lack resources and experience negative events that can amplify the risk for poor outcomes, they also have resources and adaptive potential. The perspective also recognizes that homelessness may have different meanings and outcomes at different points in development and that we need to consider interactions between individual development and multiple levels of social organization in order to foster new solutions to homelessness. On the basis of this perspective, we discuss directions for treatment and preventive interventions as well as social policy.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Acosta, O., & Toro, P. A. (2000). Let's ask the homeless people themselves: A needs assessment based on a probability sample of adults. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28 ,343–366.
Adams, C. T. (1986). Homelessness in the post-industrial city: Views from London and Philadelphia. Urban Affairs Quarterly, 21 ,527–549.
Agnew, R., & Huguley, S. (1989). Adolescent violence toward parents. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51 ,699–711.
Ahmed, S., & Toro, P. A., (in press). Homeless African Americans. In S. M. Barrow, E. L. Bassuk, J., Baumohl, M. R. Burt, D. P. Culhane, & R. E. Drake (Eds.), Encyclopedia of homelessness. Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing/Sage.
Ahn, N. (1994). Teenage childbearing and high school completion: Accounting for individual heterogeneity. Family Planning Perspectives, 26 ,17–21.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Ang, R. P., & Hughes, J. N. (2002). Differential benefits of skills training with antisocial youth based on group composition: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Review, 31 ,164–185.
Ansell, D. (2001). Where are we going tomorrow: Independent living practice. In K. A. Nollan & A. C. Downs (Eds.), Preparing youth for long-term success: Proceedings from the Casey Family Program National Independent Living Forum (pp. 35-44). Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America.
Argeriou, M., & McCarty, D. (Eds.). (1990). Treating alcoholism and drug abuse among homeless men and women: Nine community demonstration grants. New York: Haworth Press.
Ashby, P. E., & Sachs-Ericsson, N. (2004). Racial and ethnic differences in depression: The roles of social support and meeting basic needs. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72 ,41–52.
Baker, S. G. (1994). Gender, ethnicity, and homelessness: Accounting for demographic diversity on the streets. American Behavioral Scientist, 37(4), 476–504.
Banyard, V. L. (1995). "Taking another route": Daily survival narratives from mothers who are homeless. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23 ,871–891.
Barwick, M. A., & Siegel, L. S. (1996). Learning difficulties in adolescent clients of a shelter for runaway and homeless street youths. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 6 ,649–670.
Bassuk, E. L., Buckner, J. C., Weinreb, L. F., Browne, A. Bassuk, S. S., Dawson, R., et al. (1997). Homelessness in female-headed families: Childhood and adult risk and protective factors. American Journal of Public Health, 87 ,241–248.
Bassuk, E., & Gallagher, E. (1990). The impact of homelessness on children. Child and Youth Services, 14 ,19–33.
Bassuk, E. L., Perloff, J. N., & Dawson, R. (2001). Multiply homeless families: The insidious impact of violence. Housing Policy Debate, 12 ,299–320.
Bassuk, E., & Rosenberg, L. (1988). Why does family homelessness occur? A case-control study. American Journal of Public Health, 78 ,783–787.
Bassuk, E., & Rubin, L. (1987). Homeless children: A neglected population. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57 ,279–286.
Bassuk, E., Rubin, L., & Lauriat, A. (1986). Characteristics of sheltered homeless families. American Journal of Public Health, 76 ,1097–1101.
Bassuk, E. L., Weinreb, L. F., Buckner, J. C., Browne, A., Salomon, A., & Bassuk, S. S. (1996). The characteristics and needs of sheltered homeless and low-income housed mothers. JAMA, 27 6,640–646.
Baumohl, J. (Ed.). (1996). Homelessness in America. Phoenix: Oryx Press.
Becker, G. S., & Thomes, N. (1986). Human capital and the rise and fall of families. Journal of Labor Economics, 4 ,S1–S139.
Bellavia, C., & Toro, P. A. (1999). Mental illness among homeless and poor people: A comparison of assessment methods. Community Mental Health Journal, 35 ,57–67.
Benedict, M. I., Zuravin, S., Brandt, D., & Abbey, H. (1994). Types and frequency of child maltreatment by family foster care providers in an urban population. Child Abuse and Neglect, 18 ,577–585.
Blasi, G. L. (1990). Social policy and social science research on homelessness. Journal of Social Issues, 46 ,207–219.
Boesky, L. M., Toro, P. A., & Bukowski, P. A. (1997). Differences in psychosocial factors among older and younger homeless adolescents found in youth shelters. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 15(2), 19–36.
Boesky, L. M., Toro, P. A., & Wright, K. L. (1995, November). Maltreatment in a probability sample of homeless adolescents: A subgroup comparison. Paper presented in the annual meeting of American Public Health Association, San Diego, CA.
Boyd, C. J., Toro, P. A., & McCaskill, P. A. (2004). Behavioral and cognitive functioning among homeless and housed poor children: A comparative study. Unpublished manuscript under editorial review, Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI.
Brodkin, E. Z. (2003). Requiem for welfare. Dissent, 50 ,29–38.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Browne, A., Salomon, A., & Bassuk, S. S. (1999). The impact of recent partner violence on poor women's capacity to maintain work. Violence Against Women, 5 ,393–426.
Buck, P. O., Toro, P. A., & Ramos, M. (2004). Media and professional interest in homelessness over three decades (1974-20030).Unpublished manuscript under editorial review, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI.
Buckner, J., Bassuk, E., Weinreb, L., & Brooks, M. (1999). Homelessness and its relation to the mental health and behavior of low-income school-age children. Developmental Psychology, 35 ,246–257.
Buckner, J. C., Bassuk, E. L., & Weinreb, L. F. (2001). Predictors of academic achievement among homeless and low-income housed children. Journal of School Psychology, 39 ,45–69.
Buehler, R. E., Patterson, G. R., & Furniss, J. M. (1966). The re-inforcement of behavior in institutional settings. Behavior Research and Therapy, 4 ,157–167.
Burnam, A., & Koegel, P. (1988). Methodology for obtaining a representative sample of homeless persons: The Los Angeles Skid Row Study. Evaluation Review, 12 ,117–152.
Burrows, R., Pleace, N., & Quiliagars, D. (1998). Homelessness and social policy. London: Routledge.
Burt, M., Aron, L. Y., Lee, E., & Valente, J. (2001). Helping America's homeless: Emergency shelter or affordable housing? Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
Cain, A. (1993). Homeless families. In C. Fawcett (Ed.), Family psychiatric nursing (pp. 195–212). St. Louis, MO: C.V. Mosby.
Cauce, A. M., Morgan, C. J., Wagner, V., Moore, E., Sy, J., Wurzbacher, K., et al. (1994). Effectiveness of intensive case management for homeless adolescents: Results of a 3-month follow-up. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 2 ,219–227.
Cauce, A. M., Paradise, M., Embry, L., Morgan, C., Theofelis, J., Heger, J., et al. (1998). Homeless youth in Seattle: Youth characteristics, mental health needs, and intensive case management. In M. Epstein, K. Kutash, & A. Duchnowski (Eds.), Outcomes for children and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders and their families: Programs and evaluation best practices (pp. 611–632). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Cauce, A. M., Paradise, M., Ginzler, J. A., Embry, L., Morgan, C. J., Lohr, Y., et al. (2000). The characteristics and mental health of homeless adolescents: Age and gender differences. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8(4), 230–239.
Chen, C., Dormitzer, C. M., Gutiérrez, U., Vittetoe, K., González, G. B., & Anthony, J. C. (2004). The adolescent behavioral repertoire as a context for drug exposure: Behavioral autarcesis at play. Addiction, 99 ,897–906.
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70 ,6–20.
Clark, R., & Robertson, M. J. (1996). Surviving for the moment: A report on homeless youth in San Francisco.Berkeley, CA: Alcohol Research Group.
Claussen, A. H., & Crittenden, P. M. (1991). Physical and psychological maltreatment: Relations among types of maltreatment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 15(1/2), 5–18.
Clinton, A. M., Toro, P. A., & Williams, E. L. (1998, August). Comparison of social characteristics of homeless and housed mothers. Paper presented in the 106th Annual Convention of American Psychological Association, San Francisco.
Cohen, E. L., & Toro, P. A. (1999, August). Ethnic differences among homeless mothers. Paper presented in the 107th Annual Convention of American Psychological Association, Boston.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98 ,310–357.
Collins, W. A., Maccoby, E. E., Steinberg, L., Hetherington, E. M., & Bornstein, M. H. (2000). Contemporary research on parenting: The case for nature and nurture. American Psychologist, 55(2), 218–232.
Committee on Child Psychiatry. (1999). In the long run: Longitudinal studies of psychopathology in children. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (1994).Families in troubled times: Adapting to change in rural America.New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Costello, E. J., Compton, S. N., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Relationships between poverty and psychopathology: A natural experiment. JAMA, 29 0,2023–2029.
Costello, E. J., Keeler, G. P., & Angold, A. (2001). Poverty, race/ethnicity, and psychiatric disorder: A study of rural children. American Journal of Public Health, 91 ,1494–1498.
Courtney, M. E., Piliavin, I., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Nesmith, A. (2001). Foster youth transitions to adulthood: A longitudinal view of youth leaving care. Child Welfare, 80(6), 685–717.
Cowal, K., Shinn, M., Weitzman, B. C., Stojanovic, D., & Labay, L. (2002). Mother-child separations among homeless and housed families receiving public assistance in New York City. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30 ,711–730.
Culhane, D. P., & Lee, C. M. (1997). Where homeless families come from: Toward a prevention-oriented approach in Washington, D.C. Washington, DC: Fannie Mae Foundation.
Culhane, D. P., Lee, C. M., & Wachter, S. M. (1996). Where homeless people come from: A study of the prior address distribution of families admitted to public shelters in New York City and Philadelphia. Housing Policy Debate, 7 ,327–365.
Dail, P. W. (1990). The psychosocial context of homeless mothers with young children: Program and policy implications. Child Welfare, 69(4), 291–308.
Daly, G. (1990). Programs dealing with homelessness in the United States, Canada, and Britain. In J. Momeni (Ed.), Homelessness in the United States: Data and issues (pp. 133–152). New York: Praeger.
Daly, M. (1999). Regimes of social policy in Europe and the patterning of homelessness. In D. Avromov (Ed.), Coping with homelessnesss: Issues to be tackled and best practices in Europe, (pp. 210–235). Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
Dalton, J. H., Elias, M. J., Wandersman, A. (2001). Community psychology: Linking individuals and communities.Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Davis, M. I. (2003). Sex differences in alcoholics and addicts recovering in Oxford House: Exploring characteristics, social support, and self-efficacy. Dissertation Abstracts International, 63(12), 6089B.
D'Ercole, A., & Struening, E. (1990). Victimization among homeless women: Implications for service delivery. Journal of Community Psychology, 18 ,141–152.
Dishion, T. J., McCord, T. J., & Poulin, J. (1999). When interventions harm: Peer groups and problem behavior. American Psychologist, 54 ,755–764.
Dishion, T. J., Patterson, G. R., & Griesler, P. C. (1994). Peer adaptations in the development of antisocial behavior: A confluence model. In L. R. Huesmann (Ed.), Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives (pp. 61–95). New York: Plenum.
Dishion, T. J., Patterson, G. R., Stoolmiller, M., & Skinner, M. L. (1991). Family, school, and behavioral antecedents to early adolescent involvement with antisocial peers. Developmental Psychology, 27 ,172–180
Dolbeare, C. N. (1996). Housing policy: A general consideration. In J. Baumohl (Ed.), Homelessness in America (pp. 34–45). Phoenix: Oryx Press.
Duncan, G., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Duncan, G., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1999). Family poverty, welfare reform, and child development. Child Development, 71 ,188–196.
Dvorchak, P. A., Grams, G., Tate, L., & Jason, L. A. (1995). Pregnant and postpartum womenin recovery: Barriers to treatment and the role of Oxford House in the continuation of care. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 13(3), 97–107.
Easterbrooks, A. M., & Graham, C. A. (1999). Security of attachment and parenting: Homeless and low-income housed mothers and infants. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69(3), 337–346.
Eaton, W. W., & Kessler, L. G. (1985). Epidemiologic field methods in psychiatry: The NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area Program. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
Embry, L. E., Vander-Stoep, A., Evens, C., Ryan, K. D., & Pollack, A. (2000). Risk factors for homelessness in adolescents released from psychiatric residential treatment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(10), 1293–1299.
Feitel, B., Margetson, N., Chamas, R., & Lipman, C. (1992). Psychosocial background and behavioral and emotional disorders of homeless and runaway youth. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 43 ,155–159.
Ferrari, J. R., Jason, L. A., Nelson, R., & Curtin-Davis, M. (1999). An exploratory analysis of women and men within a self-help, communal-living recovery setting: A new beginning in a new house. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 25 ,305–317.
Ferrari, J. R., Jason, L. A., Olson, B. D., Davis, M., & Alvarez, J. (2002). Sense of community among Oxford House residents recovering from substance abuse: Making a house a home. In A. T. Fisher & C. C. Sonn (Eds.), Psychological sense of community: Research, applications, and implications (pp. 109–122), New York: Plenum.
Finkelhor, D., & Dziuba-Leatherman, J. (1994). Victimization of children. American Psychologist, 49 ,173–183.
First, R. J., Rife, J. C., & Toomey, B. G. (1994). Homelessness in rural areas: Causes, patterns, and trends. Social Work, 39 ,97–104.
Fischer, R. L. (1997). Evaluating the delivery of a teen pregnancy and parenting program across two settings. Research on Social Work Practice, 7 ,350–369.
Fitzgerald, H. E., & Zucker, R. A. (1995). Socioeconomic status and alcoholism: The contextual structure of developmental pathways to addiction. In H. E. Fitzgerald & B. M. Lester (Eds.), Children of poverty: Research, health, and policy issues (pp. 125-148). New York: Garland.
Fitzpatrick, S. (2000). Young homeless people. Basingstoke, UK: MacMillan Press.
Fowler, P. J., Toro, P. A., & Hobden, K. (2004). Long-term effects of parents and families on the psychological well-being of adolescents exposed to community violence. Poster session presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Psychological Association, Chicago.
Freeman, E. M. (1993). Developing alternative family structures for runaway, drug-addicted adolescents. In E. M. Freeman (Ed.), Substance abuse treatment: A family systems perspective (pp. 48–70). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fronczak, E., & Toro, P. A. (2003). Posttraumatic stress disorder in homeless and other high-risk urban adolescents. Unpublished manuscript under editorial review, Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI.
Garcia Coll, C., Buckner, J., Brooks, M., Weinreb, L., & Bassuk, E. (1998). The developmental status and adaptive behavior of homeless and low-income housed infants and toddlers. American Journal of Public Health, 88 ,1371–1374.
Goodman, L. (1991). The relationship between social support and family homelessness: A comparison study of housed and homeless mothers. Journal of Community Psychology, 19 ,321–332.
Goodman, L., Saxe, L., & Harvey, M. (1991). Homelessness as psychological trauma: Broadening perspectives. American Psychologist, 46 ,1219–1225.
Greenblatt, M., & Robertson, M. J. (1993). Homeless adolescents: Lifestyle, survival strategies and sexual behaviors. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 44 ,1177–1180.
Greene, J. M., & Ringwalt, C. L. (1998). Pregnancy among three national samples of runaway and homeless youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 23 ,370–377.
Haber, M., & Toro, P. A. (2003). Parent-adolescent violence as a predictor of adolescent outcomes. Poster session presented at the Biennial Conference on Community Research and Action, Las Vegas, NM.
Hausman, B., & Hammen, C. (1993). Parenting in homeless families: The double crisis. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63 ,358–369.
Heinlein, L. M., & Shinn, M. (2000). School mobility and student achievement in an urban setting. Psychology in the Schools, 37 ,349–357.
Heinze, H., Toro, P. A., & Urberg, K. A. (2004). Delinquent behaviors and affiliation with male and female peers. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33 ,336–346.
Hendrickson, J., & Omer, D. (1995). School-based comprehensive services: An example of interagency collaboration. In P. Adams & K. Nelson (Eds.), Reinventing human services: Community and family centered practice. Modern applications of social work (pp. 145–162). Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
Henly, J. R. (1993). The significance of social context: The case of adolescent childbearing in the African American community. Journal of Black Psychology, 19 ,461–477.
Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency.Berkeley: University of California Press.
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44 ,513–524.
Hobfoll, S. E. (2002). Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Review of General Psychology, 6(4), 307–324.
Hoge, J., & Idalski, A. (2001). How Boysville of Michigan specifies and evaluates its supervised independent living program. In K. A. Nollan & A. C. Downs (Eds.), Preparing youth for long-term success: Proceedings from the Casey Family Program National Independent Living Forum (pp. 83–93). Washington, D.C.: Child Welfare League of America.
Homan, S. M., Flick, L. H., Heaton, T. M., & Mayer, M. (1993). Reaching beyond crisis management: Design and implementation of extended shelter based services for chemically dependent homeless womenand their children: St. Louis. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 10 ,101–112.
Israel, N., & Toro, P. A. (2003, June). Perceptions of homeless clients and key informants on service needs and accessibility. Paper presented in the Biennial Conference on Community Research and Action, Las Vegas, NM.
Jackson, A. P. (2003). The effects of family and neighborhood characteristics on the behavioral and cognitive development of poor black children: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Community Psychology, 32 ,175–186.
Jacobs, F., Little, P., & Almeida, C. (1993). Supporting family life: A survey of homeless shelters. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 2 ,269–288.
James, W., Smith, A., & Mann, R. (1991). Educating homeless children: Interprofessional case management. Childhood Education, 67(5), 305–308.
Jason, L. A., Davis, M. I., Ferrari, J. R., & Bishop, P. D. (2001). Oxford House: A review of research and implications for substance abuse recovery and community research. Journal of Drug Education, 31 ,1–28.
Jason, L. A., Ferrari, J. R., Groessl, E. J., & Dvorchak, P. A. (1997). The characteristics of alcoholics in self-help residential treatment settings: Amulti-site study of Oxford House. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 15(1), 53–63.
Jencks, C. (1994). The homeless. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Johanson, C., Duffy, F. F., & Anthony, J. C. (1996). Associations between drug use and behavioral repertoire in urban youths. Addiction, 91 ,523–534.
Kelly, J. G. (1986). Context and process: An ecological view of the interdependence of practice and research. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14 ,581–589.
Killion, C. M. (2000). Extending the extended family for homeless and marginally housed African American women. Public Health Nursing, 17 ,346–354.
Kipke, M. D., Montgomery, S., & MacKenzie, R. G. (1993). Substance use among youth seen at a community-based health clinic. Journal of Adolescent Health, 14(4), 289–294.
Kipke, M. D., O'Connor, S., Palmer, R., & MacKenzie, R. G. (1995). Street youth in Los Angeles: Profile of a group at high risk for human immunodeficiency virus infection. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 149(5), 513–519.
Knitzer, J., Yoshikawa, H., Cauthen, N. K., & Aber, L. J. (2000). Welfare reform, family support, and child development: Perspectives from policy analysis and developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 12 ,619–632.
Koblinsky, S. A., Morgan, K. M., & Anderson E. A., (1997). African-American homeless and low-income housed mothers: Comparison of parenting practices. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67(1), 37–47.
Koegel, P., Melamid, E., & Burnam, A. (1995). Childhood risk factors for homelessness among homeless adults. American Journal of Public Health, 85 ,1642–1649.
Laurin, I., Fournier, L., Toupin, J., & Ostoj, M. (1996). Homeless and housed men: A study of risk factors. Paper presented at the 104th Annual Convention of American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.
LaVesser, P. D., Smith, E. M., & Bradford, S. (1997). Characteristics of homeless women with dependent children: Acontrolled study. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 15(2), 37–52.
Lawrence, M. (1995). Rural homelessness: A geography without a geography. Journal of Rural Studies, 11 ,297–307.
Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 12 6,309–337.
Levine, I. S., & Rog, D. J. (1990). Mental health services for homeless mentally ill persons: Federal initiatives and current service trends. American Psychologist, 45 ,963–968.
Levine, M., & Perkins, D. V. (1997). Principles of community psychology: Perspectives and applications (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Lindblom, E. N. (1996). Preventing homelessness. In J. Baumohl (Ed.), Homelessness in America (pp. 187–200). Phoenix: Oryx Press.
Lindsey, E. W. (1998). Service providers' perception of factors that help or hinder homeless families. Families in Society, 79 ,160–172.
Link, B. G., Susser, E., Stueve, A., Phelan, J., Moore, R. E., & Struening, E. (1994). Lifetime and five-year prevalence of homelessness in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 84 ,1907–1912.
Lombardo, S., & Toro, P. A. (2004). Risky sexual behaviors and substance abuse among homeless and other at-risk adolescents. Unpublished manuscript under editorial review, Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI.
Lupien, S. J., King, S., Meaney, M. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2001). Can poverty get under your skin? Basal cortisol levels and cognitive function in children from low and high socioeconomic status. Development and Psychopathology, 13 ,653–676.
MacLean, M. G., Embry, L. E., & Cauce, A. M. (1999). Homeless adolescents' paths to separation from family: Comparison of family characteristics, psychological adjustment, and victimization. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(2), 179–187.
MacLean, M. G., Paradise, M. J., & Cauce, A. M. (1999). Substance use and psychological adjustment in homeless adolescents: A test of three models. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27(3), 405–427.
Marpsat, M., & Firdion, J. (Eds.). (2000). La rue et le foyer. Une recherche sur les sans-domicile et les mal-logés dans les années 90 [The street and the home: A study on the homeless and poorly housed during the 1990s] (Works and Documents, No. 144).Paris: National Institute for Demographic Studies.
Marshal, M. P., & Chassin, L. (2000). Peer influence on adolescent alcohol use: The moderating role of parental support and discipline. Applied Developmental Science, 4(2), 80–88.
Mason, C. A., Cauce, A. M., Gonzales, N., & Hiraga, Y. (1994). Adolescent problem behavior: The effect of peers and the moderating role of father absence and the mother-child relationship. American Journal of Community Psychology, 22 ,723–743.
Masten, A. (1992). Homeless children in the United States: Amark of a nation at risk. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2 ,41–44.
Masten, A., Miliotis, D., Graham-Bermann, S., Ramirez, M., & Neeman, J. (1993). Children in homeless families: Risks to mental health and development. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61 ,335–343.
Mayer, S. E. (1997). What money can't buy: Family income and children's life chances. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
McCarthy, B., & Hagan, J. (1992). Surviving the street: The experiences of homeless youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7 ,412–430.
McCaskill, P. A., Toro, P. A., & Wolfe, S. M. (1998). Homeless and matched housed adolescents: Acomparative study of psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27 ,306–319.
McLoyd, V. C. (1990). The impact of economic hardship on Black families and children: Psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. Child Development, 61 ,311–346.
McMorris, B. J., Tyler, K. A., Whitbeck, L. B., & Hoyt, D. R. (2002). Familial and "on the street" risk factors associated with alcohol use among homeless and runaway adolescents. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 63(1), 34–43.
Menke, E. M., & Wagner, J. D. (1997). A comparative study of homeless, previously homeless, and never homeless school-aged children's health. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing, 20(3), 153–173.
Metraux, S., & Culhane, D. P. (1999). Family dynamics, housing, and recurring homelessness among women in New York City homeless shelters. Journal of Family Issues, 20 ,371–396.
Miller, H. (1991). On the fringe: The dispossessed in America. Lexington, MA: DC Heath.
Molnar, J. M., Rath, W. R., & Klein, T. P. (1990). Constantly compromised: The impact of homelessness on children. Journal of Social Issues, 46(4), 109–124.
Molnar, B. E., Shade, S. B., Kral, A. H., Booth, R. E., & Watters, J. K. (1998). Suicidal behavior and sexual/physical abuse among street youth. Child Abuse and Neglect, 22(3), 213–222.
Morris, P., Bloom, D., Kemple, J., & Hendra, R. (2003). The effects of a time-limited welfare program on children: The moderating role of parents' risk of welfare dependency. Child Development, 74 ,851–874
Morse, G., Calsyn, R. J., Allen, G., Tempelhoff, B., & Smith, R. (1992). Experimental comparison of the effects of three treatment programs for homeless mentally ill people. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 43 ,1005–1010.
Mulroy, E. A., & Lane, T. S. (1992). Housing affordability, stress, and single mothers: Pathway to homelessness. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 19(3), 51–64.
Mundy, P., Robertson, J., Greenblatt, M., & Robertson, M. (1989). Residential instability in adolescent inpatients. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28(2), 176–181.
National Association for the Education of Homeless Children and Youth and the National Coalition for the Homeless. (1999). Making the grade: Successes and challenges in providing educational opportunities to homeless children and youth. Washington, DC: Authors.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (1991). Synopses of cooperative agreements for research demonstration projects on alcohol and other drug abuse treatment for homeless persons. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Ng, A. T., & McQuistion, H. L. (2004). Outreach to the homeless: Craft, science, and future implications. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 10 ,95–105.
Norris, F. H., & Kaniasty, K. (1996). Received and perceived social support in times of stress: A test of the social support deterioration deterrence model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71 ,498–511.
North, C. S., & Smith, E. M. (1992). Posttraumatic stress disorder among homeless men and women. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 43 ,1010–1016.
North, C. S., & Smith, E. M. (1993). Acomparison of homeless men and women: Different populations, different needs. Community Mental Health Journal, 29 ,423–431.
O'Flaherty, B. (1996). Making room: The economics of homelessness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Olson, B. D., Curtis, C. E., Jason, L. A., Ferrari, J. R., Horin, E. V., Davis, M. A., et al. (2003). Physical and sexual trauma, psychiatric symptoms, and sense of community among women in recovery: Toward a new model of shelter aftercare. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 26 ,67–80.
O'Sullivan, A. L., & Jacobsen, B. S. (1992). A randomized trial of a health care program for first time adolescent mothers and their infants. Nursing Research, 41 ,210–215.
Ouellette, N., & Toro, P. A. (2002, May). Detroit/Wayne County People and Transitions in Housing (PATH) Project: Needs assessment data collected over 10 years (1992-2002). Presented to the Needs Assessment Committee of the Homeless Action Network of Detroit, Detroit, MI.
Ovwigho, P. C., Leavitt, K. L., & Born, C. E. (2003). Risk factors for child abuse and neglect among former TANFfamilies: Dolater leavers experience greater risk? Children and Youth Services Review, 25 ,139–163.
Owen, G., Heineman, J., Minton, C., Lloyd, B., Larsen, P., & Zierman, C. (1998). Minnesota Statewide Survey of Persons Without Permanent Shelter: Volume II, Unaccompanied Youth.St. Paul, MN: Wilder Foundation.
Paradise, M., Cauce, A. M., Ginzler, J., Wert, S., Wruck, K., & Brooker, M. (2001). The role of relationships in developmental trajectories of homeless and runaway youth. In B. Sarason & S. Duck (Eds.), Personal relationships: Implications for clinical and community psychology (pp. 159–179). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
Perloff, J. N., & Buckner, J. C. (1996). Fathers of children on welfare: Their impact on child well-being. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66 ,557–571.
Phillips, K. (1990). The politics of rich and poor: Wealth and the American electorate in the Reagan aftermath. New York: Random House.
Piliavin, I., Sosin, M., & Westerfelt, A. H. (1988). The duration of homeless careers: Anexploratory study. Social Service Review, 67 ,576–598.
Powers, J. L., Eckenrode, J., & Jaklitsch, B. (1990). Maltreatment among runaway and homeless youth. Child Abuse and Neglect, 14(1), 87–98.
Rabideau, J. M. P., & Toro, P. A. (1997). Social and environmental predictors of adjustment in homeless children. Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community, 15(2), 1–17.
Rafferty, Y., & Shinn, M. (1991). The impact of homelessness on children. American Psychologist, 46 ,1170–1179.
Rafferty, Y., Shinn, M., & Weitzman, B. C. (2004). Academic achievement among formerly homeless adolescents and their continuously housed peers. Journal of School Psychology, 42 ,179–199.
Randolph, E. L., Blasinsky, M., Leginski, W., Parker, L. B., & Goldman, H. H. (1997). Creating integrated service systems for homeless persons with mental illness: The ACCESS program: Access to community care and effective services and supports. Psychiatric Services, 48 ,369–373.
Reed, N. Y. (1994, August). Family constellation and outcomes among homeless adolescents and their peers. Paper presented in the 102nd Annual Convention of American Psychological Association, Los Angeles.
Regier, D. A., Boyd, J. H., Burke, J. D., Jr., Rae, D. S., Myers, J. K., Krammer, M., et al. (1988). One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States: Based on five epidemiologic catchment area sites. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45 ,977–986.
Rew, L., Thomas, N., Horner, S. D., Resnick, M. D., & Beuhring, T. (2001). Correlates of recent suicide attempts in a triethnic group of adolescents. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 33(4), 361–367.
Rickel, A. U., & Becker, E. (1997). Keeping children from harm's way: How national policy affects psychological development.Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Ringwalt, C. L., Greene, J. M., & Iachan, R. (1994, November). Prevalence and characteristics of youth in households with run-away and homeless experience. Paper presented in the meeting of the American Public Health Association, Washington, DC.
Ringwalt, C. L., Greene, J. M., Robertson, M., & McPheeters, M. (1998). The prevalence of homelessness among adolescents in the United States. American Journal of Public Health,88(9), 1325–1329.
Robertson, M. J. (1989). Homeless youth in Hollywood: Patterns of alcohol use. Report to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (No. C51). Berkeley, CA: Alcohol Research Group
Robertson, M. J. (1991). Homeless youth: An overview of recent literature. In J. H. Kryder-Coe, L. M. Salamon, & J. M. Molnar (Eds.), Homeless children and youth: Anew American dilemma (pp. 33–68). London: Transaction.
Robertson, M. J. (1992). The prevalence of mental disorder among homeless people. In R. I. Jahiel (Ed.), Homelessness: A prevention oriented approach (pp. 57–86). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Robertson, M. J., & Toro, P. A. (1999). Homeless youth: Research, intervention, and policy. In L. B. Fosburg & D. L. Dennis (Eds.), Practical lessons: The 1998 National Symposium on Homelessness Research (pp. 3–1:3–32). Washington, DC: U.S.
Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Croughan, J., & Ratcliff, K. S. (1981). National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule. Its history, characteristics, and validity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38 ,381–389
Rog, D. J., Holupka, C. S., & McCombs-Thorton, K. L. (1995). Implementation of the homeless families program: 1. Service models and preliminary outcomes. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65 ,502–513.
Roll, C. N., Toro, P. A., & Ortola, G. L. (1999). Characteristics and experiences of homeless adults: A comparison of single men, single women, and women with children. Journal of Community Psychology, 27 ,189–198.
Rosenthal, J. A., Motz, J. K., Edmonson, D. A., & Groze, V. (1991). Adescriptive study of abuse and neglect in out-of-home placement. Child Abuse and Neglect, 15 ,249–260
Rossi, P. H. (1989). Down and out in America: The origins of homelessness. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Rotheram-Borus, M. J. (1991). Homeless youths and HIVinfection. American Psychologist, 46 ,1188–1197.
Rotheram-Borus, M. J. (1993). Suicidal behavior and risk factors among runaway youths. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150(1), 103–107.
Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Mahler, K. A., Koopman, C., & Langabeer, K. (1996). Sexual abuse history and associated multiple risk behavior in adolescent runaways. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66(3), 390–400.
Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Meyer-Bahlberg, H. F. L., Koopman, C., Rosario, M., Exner, T. M., Henderson, R., et al. (1992). Life-time sexual behaviors amongrunaway males and females. Journal of Sex Research, 29 ,15–29.
Rothman, J., & David, T. (1985). Status offenders in Los Angeles County: Focus on runaway and homeless youth(Bush Program in Child and Family Policy). Los Angeles: University of California.
Sacks, J. Y., Sacks, S., Harle, M., & DeLeon, G. (1999). Homelessness prevention therapeutic community (TC) for addicted mothers. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 17(1/2), 33–51.
Salomon, A., Bassuk, S. S., & Brooks, M. G. (1996). Patterns of welfare use among poor and homeless women. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66 ,510–525.
Sameroff, A. J., Lewis, M., & Miller, S. M. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of developmental psychopathology (2nd ed.). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1993). Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, MA: U.S. Harvard University Press.
Scarr, S., & Deater-Deckard, K. (1997). Family effects on individual differences in development. In S. S. Luthar & J. A. Burack (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Perspectives on adjustment, risk, and disorder (pp. 115–136). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Schweinhart, L. J., & Weikart, D. P. (1988). The High/Scope Perry Preschool Program. In R. M. Price, E. L. Cowen, R. P. Lorion, & J. Ramos-McKay (Eds.), Fourteen ounces of prevention: A casebook for practitioners(pp. 53–65). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Shinn, M. (1992). Homelessness: What is a psychologist to do? American Journal of Community Psychology, 20 ,1–24.
Shinn, M. (1997). Family homelessness: State or trait? American Journal of Community Psychology, 25 ,755–769.
Shinn, M., & Baumohl, J. (1999). Rethinking the prevention of homelessness. In L. B. Fosburg & D. L. Dennis (Eds.), Practical lessons: The 1998national symposium on homelessness research (pp. 13:1–13:26). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and US Department of Health and Human Services.
Shinn, M., & Gillespie, C. (1994). The roles of housing and poverty in the origins of homelessness. The American Behavioral Scientist, 37 ,505–521.
Shinn, M., Knickman, J. R., Ward, D., Petrovic, N. L., & Muth, B. J. (1990). Alternative models for sheltering homeless families. Journal of Social Issues, 46(4), 175–190.
Shinn, M., Knickman, J., & Weitzman, B. C. (1991). Social relationships and vulnerability to becoming homeless among poor families. American Psychologist, 46 ,1180–1187.
Shinn, M., & Weitzman, B. C. (1990). Research on homelessness: An introduction. Journal of Social Issues, 46 ,1–11.
Shinn, M., & Weitzman, B. C. (1996). Homeless families are different. In J. Baumohl (Ed.), Homelessness in America (pp. 109–122). Phoenix: Oryx Press.
Shinn, M., Weitzman, B. C., Stojanovic, D., Knickman, J. R., Jimenez, L., Duchon, L., et al. (1998). Predictors of homelessness among families in New York City: From shelter request to housing stability. American Journal of Public Health, 88 ,1651–1657.
Simons, R. L., Johnson, C., Beaman, J., Conger, R. D., & Whitbeck, L. B. (1996). Parents and peer group as mediators of the effect of community structure on adolescent problem behavior. American Journal of Community Psychology, 24 ,145–171.
Smith, E. M., & North, C. S. (1994). Not all homeless women are alike: Effects of motherhood and the presence of children. Community Mental Health Journal, 30 ,601–610.
Stojanovic, D., Weitzman, B. C., Shinn, M., Labay, L. E., & Williams, N. P. (1999). Tracing the paths out of homelessness: The housing patterns of families after exiting shelter. Journal of Community Psychology, 27 ,199–208.
Susser, E. S., Lin, S. P., Conover, S. A., & Struening, E. L. (1991). Childhood antecedents of homelessness in psychiatric patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148,1026-1030. American Journal of Public Health, 84 ,1907–1912.
Thrane, L. E., & Yoder, K. A. (2000). Comparing rural and urban runaway and homeless adolescents: Age at first run, deviant subsistence strategies, and street victimization. Poster session presented at the Society for Research on Adolescence, Chicago.
Thrasher, S. P., & Mowbray, C. (1995). A strengths perspective: An ethnographic study of homeless women with children. Health and Social Work, 20(2), 93–101.
Tompsett, C. J., Heinze, H., Josefowicz-Simbeni, D., & Toro, P. A. (2004, September). Best practices in services for homeless youth and families. Presentation at the Fifth European Congress on Community Psychology, Berlin.
Tompsett, C. J., Toro, P. A., & Goldstein, M. S. (2003). A comparison of homeless adolescents, young adults, and older adults. Paper presented in the Biennial Conference on Community Research and Action, Las Vegas, NM.
Tompsett, C. J., Toro, P. A., Guzicki, M., Manrique, M., & Zatakia, J. (2004). Homelessness in the United States: Assessing changes in prevalence and public opinion, 1993-20 01 .Unpublished manuscript under editorial review, Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI.
Tompsett, C. J., Toro, P. A., Guzicki, M., Schlienz, N., Blume, M., & Lombardo, S. (2003). Homelessness in the United States and Germany: A cross-national analysis. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 13 ,240–257.
Toro, P. A. (1998). Homelessness. In A. S. Bellack & M. Hersen (Eds.), Comprehensive clinical psychology: Vol. 9. Applications in diverse populations (pp. 119–135). New York: Pergamon.
Toro, P. A., Bellavia, C., Daeschler, C., Owens, B., Wall, D. D., Passero, J. M., et al. (1995). Distinguishing homelessness from poverty: A comparative study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63 ,280–289.
Toro, P. A., & Goldstein, M. S. (2000, August). Outcomes among homeless and matched housed adolescents: A longitudinal comparison. Paper presented in the 108th Annual Convention of American Psychological Association, Washington, DC
Toro, P. A., Goldstein, M. S., Rowland, L. L., Bellavia, C. W., Wolfe, S. M., Thomas, D. M., et al. (1999). Severe mental illness among homeless adults and its association with longitudinal outcomes. Behavior Therapy, 30 ,431–452.
Toro, P. A., Janisse, H. C., & Fowler, P. J. (2004, February). Foster care: A national problem. Institute for Social Policy and Understanding (Policy Brief No. 3). Clinton Twp., MI.
Toro, P. A., Lombardo, S., & Yapchai, C. J. (2002). M. Bloom (Eds.), Encyclopedia of prevention and health promotion (pp. 561–570). New York: Kluwer/Plen
Toro, P. A., & McDonell, D. M. (1992). Beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge about homelessness: A survey of the general public. American Journal of Community Psychology, 20 ,53–80.
Toro, P. A., Rabideau, J. M.P., Bellavia, C. W., Daeschler, C. V., Wall, D. D., Thomas, D. M., et al. (1997). Evaluating an intervention for homeless persons: Results of a field experiment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65 ,476–484.
Toro, P. A., & Rojansky, A. (1990). Homelessness: Some thoughts from an international perspective. The Community Psychologist, 24(1), 8–11.
Toro, P. A., Tompsett, C. J., Lombardo, S., Schlienz, N., Stammel, N., Blume, M., et al. (2004). Homelessness in Europe and North America: A comparison of prevalence and public opinion. Unpublished manuscript under editorial review, Department of Psychology, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI.
Toro, P. A., Trickett, E. J., Wall, D. D., & Salem, D. A. (1991). Homelessness in the United States: An ecological perspective. American Psychologist, 46 ,1208–1218.
Toro, P. A., & Warren, M. G. (1999). Homelessness in the United States: Policy considerations. Journal of Community Psychology, 27 ,119–136.
Toro, P. A., Wolfe, S. M., Bellavia, C. W., Thomas, D. M., Rowland, L. L., Daeschler, C. V., et al. (1999). Obtaining representative samples of homeless persons: A two-city study. Journal of Community Psychology, 27 ,157–178.
Tsemberis, S. (1999). From streets to homes: An innovative approach to supported housing for homeless adults with psychiatric disabilities. Journal of Community Psychology, 27 ,225–242.
Tyler, K. A., Hoyt, D. R., & Whitbeck, L. B. (2000). The effects of early sexual abuse on later sexual victimization among female homeless and runaway adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15(3), 235–250.
Tyler, K. A., Hoyt, D. R., Whitbeck, L. B., & Cauce, A. M. (2001). The impact of childhood sexual abuse on later sexual victimization among runaway youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11 ,151–176.
Unger, J. B., Simon, T. R., Newman, T. L., Montgomery, S. B., Kipke, M. D., & Albornoz, M. (1998). Early adolescent street youth: An overlooked population with unique problems and service needs. Journal of Early Adolescence, 18 ,325–348.
U.S. Conference of Mayors. (1989). A status report on hunger and homelessness in American cities, 1989: A 27city survey. Washington, DC: Author.
U.S. Conference of Mayors. (1993). Ending homelessness in America's cities: Implementing a plan of action. San Francisco: Homebase.
United States General Accounting Office. (1994). Elementary school children: Many change schools frequently, harming their education (GAO/HEHS-94-45)}.Gaithersberg, MD: Author.
Upshur, C. C. (1986). Research report: The Bridge, Inc., independent living demonstration. In Amendments to the foster care and adoption assistance program. Hearing before the subcommittee on public assistance and unemployment compensation of the Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives, 99th Congress (September 19, 1985) (Serial 99-54). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
Van der Kolk, B. A. (1987). Psychological trauma. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Vostanis, P., Grattan, E., Cumella, S., & Winchester, C. (1997). Psychosocial functioning of homeless children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(7), 881–889.
Webb, D. A., Culhane, J., Metraux, S., Robbins, J. M., & Culhane, D. (2003). Prevalence of episodic homelessness among adult childbearing women in Philadelphia, PA. American Journal of Public Health, 93 ,1895–1896.
Weinreb, L. F., & Bassuk, E. L. (1990). Substance abuse: A growing problem among homeless families. Family and Community Health, 13 ,55–64.
Weitzman, B., & Berry, C. (1994). Formerly homeless families and the transition to permanent housing: High-risk families and the role of intensive case management services(Final report to the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation). New York: New York University.
Weitzman, B. C., Knickman, J. R., & Shinn, M. (1992). Predictors of shelter use among low-income families: Psychiatric history, substance, abuse, and victimization. American Journal of Public Health, 82 ,1547–1550.
Whitbeck, L. B., & Hoyt, D. R. (1999). Nowhere to grow: Homeless and runaway adolescents and their families. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., & Ackley, K. A. (1997). Abusive family backgrounds and victimization among runaway and homeless adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7 ,375–392.
Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., Tyler, K. A., Ackley, K. A., & Fields, S. C. (1997). Midwest homeless and runaway adolescent project: Summary report to participating agencies.Unpublished manuscript, Department of Sociology, Iowa State University.
Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., & Yoder, K. A. (1999). A risk-amplification model of victimization and depressive symptoms among runaway and homeless adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27(2), 273–296.
Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., Yoder, K. A., Cauce, A. M., & Paradise, M. (2001). Deviant behavior and victimization among homeless and runaway adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16(11), 1175–1204.
Windle, M. (1989). Substance use and abuse among adolescent run-aways: A four-year follow-up study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 18 ,331–344.
Wolfe, S. M., Toro, P. A., & McCaskill, P. A. (1999). A comparison of homeless and matched housed adolescents on family environment variables. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9 ,53–66.
Wood, D., Valdez, R. B., & Hayashi, T. (1990). Homeless and housed families in Los Angeles: Astudy comparing demographic, economic, and family function characteristics. American Journal of Public Health, 80 ,1049–1052.
Wright, J. D., & Lam, J. A. (1987). Homelessness and the low-income housing supply. Social Policy, 17(4), 49–53.
Yates, G. L., MacKenzie, R., Pennbridge, J., & Cohen, E. (1988). A risk profile comparison of runaway and non-runaway youth. American Journal of Public Health, 78 ,820–821.
Yeung, W. J., Linver, M. R., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002). How money matters for young children's development: Parental investment and family processes. Child Development, 73 ,1861–1879.
Yoder, K. A., Whitbeck, L. B., & Hoyt, D. R. (2001). Event history analysis of antecedents to running away from home and being on the street. American Behavioral Scientist, 45(1), 51–65
Young, R. L., Godfrey, W., Matthews, B., & Adams, G. R. (1983). Runaways: A review of negative consequences. Family Relations, 32 ,275–281.
Ziesemer, C., Marcoux, L., & Marwell, B. (1994). Homeless children: Are they different from other low-income children? Social Work, 39 ,658–668.
Zlotnick, C., Kronstadt, D., & Klee, L. (1999). Essential case management services for young children in foster care. Community Mental Health Journal, 35 ,421–430.
Zlotnick, C., Robertson, M. J., & Lahiff, M. (1999). Getting off the streets: Economic resources and residential exits among homeless adults. Journal of Community Psychology, 27 ,209–224.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Haber, M.G., Toro, P.A. Homelessness Among Families, Children, and Adolescents: An Ecological–Developmental Perspective. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 7, 123–164 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CCFP.0000045124.09503.f1
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:CCFP.0000045124.09503.f1