Abstract
Objective:
To look for same-sex (gender assortative) association of body mass index (BMI) in healthy trios (mother, father and child) from a contemporary birth cohort, which might imply shared environment rather than shared genes because selective mother–daughter and father–son gene transmission is not a common Mendelian trait.
Design:
Prospective (longitudinal) cohort study with four annual time points, from 5 to 8 years.
Subjects:
226 healthy trios from a 1995 to 1996 birth cohort randomly selected in the city of Plymouth, UK.
Measurements:
Average BMI of the two parents and maternal/paternal BMI separately related to the BMI-SDS (standard deviation score) of all offspring and to the BMI-SDS of the sons and the daughters separately.
Results:
There were big differences in BMI-SDS among the daughters grouped according to mothers' category of BMI (effect size 1.37 SDS), but not their sons (effect size 0.16 SDS, gender interaction P<0.004), and among the sons grouped according to their fathers' BMI (effect size 1.28 SDS), but not their daughters (effect size 0.17, gender interaction P=0.02). Children whose same-sex parents were of normal weight, weighed either close to (girls+0.20 BMI-SDS) or less than (boys,−0.34 BMI-SDS) children of 20 years ago, and did not change from 5 to 8 years. In contrast, the risks of obesity at 8 years were 10-fold greater (girls 41%, P<0.001) or sixfold greater (boys 18%, P<0.05) if the same-sex parent was obese. Longitudinal linear mixed effects (multilevel) modelling showed a marked influence of maternal and paternal BMI on the rate of weight gain, which was unaffected by birth weight of the child. We report perhaps the largest effect sizes so far recorded in childhood obesity.
Conclusions:
Childhood obesity today seems to be largely confined to those whose same-sex parents are obese, and the link does not seem to be genetic. Parental obesity, like smoking, might be targeted in the interests of the child.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
$259.00 per year
only $21.58 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on Springer Link
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
References
Lean ME . Pathophysiology of obesity. Proc Nutr Soc 2000; 59: 331–336.
Ebbeling CB, Pawlak DB, Ludwig DS . Childhood obesity: public-health crisis, common sense cure. Lancet 2002; 360: 473–482.
Parsons TJ, Power C, Logan S, Summerbell CD . Childhood predictors of adult obesity: a systematic review. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1999; 23: S1–S107.
Barness LA, Opitz JM, Gilbert-Barness E . Obesity: genetic, molecular, and environmental aspects. Am J Med Genet A 2007; 143A: 3016–3034.
Hillier TA, Pedula KL, Schmidt MM, Mullen JA, Charles MA, Pettitt DJ . Childhood obesity and metabolic imprinting: the ongoing effects of maternal hyperglycemia. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 2287–2292.
Garn SM, Clark DC . Trends in fatness and the origins of obesity ad hoc committee to review the ten-state nutrition survey. Pediatrics 1976; 57: 443–456.
Keiller SM, Colley JR, Carpenter RG . Obesity in school children and their parents. Ann Hum Biol 1979; 6: 443–455.
Lake JK, Power C, Cole TJ . Child to adult body mass index in the 1958 British birth cohort: associations with parental obesity. Arch Dis Child 1997; 77: 376–381.
Sorensen TI, Holst C, Stunkard AJ, Skovgaard LT . Correlations of body mass index of adult adoptees and their biological and adoptive relatives. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1992; 16: 227–236.
Davey SG, Steer C, Leary S, Ness A . Is there an intrauterine influence on obesity? Evidence from parent child associations in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Arch Dis Child 2007; 92: 876–880.
Voss LD, Kirkby J, Metcalf BS, Jeffery AN, O'Riordan C, Murphy MJ et al. Preventable factors in childhood that lead to insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus and the metabolic syndrome: the EarlyBird diabetes study 1. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2003; 16: 1211–1224.
Cole TJ, Freeman JV, Preece MA . Body mass index reference curves for the UK, 1990. Arch Dis Child 1995; 73: 25–29.
Waterland RA, Travisano M, Tahiliani KG, Rached MT, Mirza S . Methyl donor supplementation prevents transgenerational amplification of obesity. Int J Obes (Lond) 2008; 32: 1373–1379.
Hunt MS, Katzmarzyk PT, Perusse L, Rice T, Rao DC, Bouchard C . Familial resemblance of 7-year changes in body mass and adiposity. Obes Res 2002; 10: 507–517.
Allison DB, Kaprio J, Korkeila M, Koskenvuo M, Neale MC, Hayakawa K . The heritability of body mass index among an international sample of monozygotic twins reared apart. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1996; 20: 501–506.
Stunkard AJ, Harris JR, Pedersen NL, McClearn GE . The body-mass index of twins who have been reared apart. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 1483–1487.
Sorensen TI, Holst C, Stunkard AJ . Childhood body mass index—genetic and familial environmental influences assessed in a longitudinal adoption study. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1992; 16: 705–714.
Stunkard AJ, Sorensen TI, Hanis C, Teasdale TW, Chakraborty R, Schull WJ et al. An adoption study of human obesity. N Engl J Med 1986; 314: 193–198.
Hughes JM, Li L, Chinn S, Rona RJ . Trends in growth in England and Scotland, 1972–1994. Arch Dis Child 1997; 76: 182–189.
Kivimaki M, Lawlor DA, Smith GD, Elovainio M, Jokela M, Keltikangas-Jarvinen L et al. Substantial intergenerational increases in body mass index are not explained by the fetal overnutrition hypothesis: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 86: 1509–1514.
Wardle J, Carnell S, Haworth CM, Plomin R . Evidence for a strong genetic influence on childhood adiposity despite the force of the obesogenic environment. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 87: 398–404.
Gardner DS, Metcalf BS, Hosking J, Jeffery AN, Voss LD, Wilkin TJ . Contribution of early weight gain to childhood overweight and metabolic health: a longitudinal study. (EarlyBird 36). Pediatrics 2009; 123: e67–e73.
Gillman MW . The first months of life: a critical period for development of obesity. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 87: 1587–1589.
Freeman JV, Cole TJ, Chinn S, Jones PR, White EM, Preece MA . Cross sectional stature and weight reference curves for the UK, 1990. Arch Dis Child 1995; 73: 17–24.
Kamath CC, Vickers KS, Ehrlich A, McGovern L, Johnson J, Singhal V et al. Behavioral interventions to prevent childhood obesity. A systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93: 4606–4615.
Levin BE . Metabolic imprinting on genetically predisposed neural circuits perpetuates obesity. Nutrition 2000; 16: 909–915.
Whitaker RC, Dietz WH . Role of the prenatal environment in the development of obesity. J Pediatr 1998; 132: 768–776.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge funding from the following organizations: Bright Futures Trust, Smith's Charity, Diabetes UK, NHS R&D, DoH, Child Growth Foundation, Diabetes Foundation and EarlyBird Diabetes Trust.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Author contributions
I declare that I participated in the contributions made to the study and that I have seen and approved the final version. EMP-P contributed to the analysis and writing of the paper; BSM provided statistical advice; JH helped with data management and statistical advice; ANJ helped in data collection; LDV acted as the EarlyBird Study Co-ordinator; TJW developed concept, helped in writing the paper and also acted as EarlyBird Study Director.
The funding organisations had no role in the execution of this study.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Perez-Pastor, E., Metcalf, B., Hosking, J. et al. Assortative weight gain in mother–daughter and father–son pairs: an emerging source of childhood obesity. Longitudinal study of trios (EarlyBird 43). Int J Obes 33, 727–735 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2009.76
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2009.76
Keywords
This article is cited by
-
Influence of parental weight change on the incidence of overweight and obesity in offspring
BMC Pediatrics (2022)
-
Objectively measured waist circumference is most strongly associated in father–boy and mother–girl dyads in a large nationally representative sample of New Zealanders
International Journal of Obesity (2021)
-
A longitudinal study investigating change in BMI z-score in primary school-aged children and the association of child BMI z-score with parent BMI
BMC Public Health (2020)
-
Depressive symptoms and obesity: instrumental variable analysis using mother–offspring pairs in the 1970 British Cohort Study
International Journal of Obesity (2016)
-
Childhood obesity: evidence for distinct early and late environmental determinants a 12-year longitudinal cohort study (EarlyBird 62)
International Journal of Obesity (2015)