Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Research Article
  • Published:

Perchlorate Exposure of the US Population, 2001–2002

Abstract

Perchlorate is commonly found in the environment and can impair thyroid function at pharmacological doses. As a result of the potential for widespread human exposure to this biologically active chemical, we assessed perchlorate exposure in a nationally representative population of 2820 US residents, ages 6 years and older, during 2001 and 2002 as part of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). We found detectable levels of perchlorate (>0.05 μg/l) in all 2820 urine samples tested, indicating widespread human exposure to perchlorate. Urinary perchlorate levels were distributed in a log normal fashion with a median of 3.6 μg/l (3.38 μg/g creatinine) and a 95th percentile of 14 μg/l (12.7 μg/g creatinine). When geometric means of urinary perchlorate levels were adjusted for age, fasting, sex and race-ethnicity, we found significantly higher levels of urinary perchlorate in children compared with adolescents and adults. We estimated total daily perchlorate dose for each adult (ages 20 years and older), based on urinary perchlorate, urinary creatinine concentration and physiological parameters predictive of creatinine excretion rate. The 95th percentile of the distribution of estimated daily perchlorate doses in the adult population was 0.234 μg/kg-day [CI 0.202–0.268 μg/kg-day] and is below the EPA reference dose (0.7 μg/kg-day), a dose estimated to be without appreciable risk of adverse effects during a lifetime of exposure. These data provide the first population-based assessment of the magnitude and prevalence of perchlorate exposure in the US.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Rent or buy this article

Prices vary by article type

from$1.95

to$39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anbar M., Guttmann S., and Lweitus Z. The mode of action of perchlorate ions on the iodine uptake of the thyroid gland. Int J Appl Radiat Isot 1959: 7: 87–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barr D.B., Wilder L.C., Caudill S.P., Gonzalez A.J., Needham L.L., and Pirkle J.L. Urinary creatinine concentrations in the US population: implications for urinary biologic monitoring measurements. Environ Health Perspect 2005: 113: 192–200 doi:10.1289/ehp.7337.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blount B.C., Valentin-Blasini L., and Ashley D.L. Assessing human exposure to perchlorate using biomonitoring. J ASTM Int 2006: 3 (7): 1–6 doi:10.1520/JAI100398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braverman L.E., He X., Pino S., Cross M., Magnani B., and Lamm S.H., et al. The effect of perchlorate, thiocyanate, and nitrate on thyroid function in workers exposed to perchlorate long-term. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005: 90: 700–706.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braverman L.E., Pearce E.N., He X., Pino S., Seeley M., and Beck B., et al. Effects of six months of daily low-dose perchlorate exposure on thyroid function in healthy volunteers. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006: 91: 2721–2724 doi:10.1210/jc.2006-0184.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braverman L.E., and Utiger R.D., (Eds) Introduction to hypothyroidism. In: Werner & Ingbar's the thyroid: A fundamental and clinical text. 8th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 2000 pp. 719–720.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell K.L., Jones R., and Hollowell J.G. Urinary iodine concentration: United States National Health And Nutrition Examination Survey 2001–2002. Thyroid 2005: 15: 692–699.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capuco A.V., Rice C.P., and Baldwin R.L. Fate of dietary perchlorate in lactating dairy cows. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005: 102 (45): 16152–16157.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • CDC. National Occupational Exposure Survey. Cincinnati, OH: Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1995 pp. 89–103 Available: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/89-103.html (accessed April 18, 2006).

  • CDC. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2004 Available: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes.htm (accessed March 20, 2006).

  • CDC. National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals 2005 Available: http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/ (accessed March 20, 2006).

  • Cockcroft D.W., and Gault M.H. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron 1976: 16: 31–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dasgupta P.K., Martinelango P.K., Jackson W.A., Anderson T.A., Tian K., and Tock R.W., et al. The origin of naturally occurring perchlorate: the role of atmospheric processes. Environ Sci Technol 2005: 39: 1569–1575.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • EPA. Federal Register 1998: 63: 10274.

  • EPA. Revisions to the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Regulation for Public Water Systems; Final Rule. Federal Register 1999: 64: 50555 Available: http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-WATER/1999/September/Day-17/w23030.htm (Accessed September 14, 2006).

  • EPA. Perchlorate and perchlorate salts, 2005a Available: http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/1007.htm (Accessed March 20, 2006).

  • EPA. Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Regulation (UCMR) data from public water systems, 2005b Available: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/ucmr/data.html (accessed March 20, 2006).

  • FDA. Exploratory Data on Perchlorate in Food, 2004 Available: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/clo4data.html (Accessed March 20, 2006).

  • Gibbs J.P., Ahmad R., Crump K.S., Houck D.P., Leveille T.S., and Findley J.E., et al. Evaluation of a population with occupational exposure to airborne ammonium perchlorate for possible acute or chronic effects on thyroid function. J Occup Environ Med 1998: 40: 1072–1082.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs J.P., Narayanan L., Mattie D.R., and Crump K.S., et al. study among school children in Chile: subsequent urine and serum perchlorate levels are consistent with perchlorate in water in Taltal. J Occup Environ Med 2004: 46: 516–517.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greer M.A., Goodman G., Pleus R.C., and Greer S.E. Health effects assessment for environmental perchlorate contamination: the dose response for inhibition of thyroidal radioiodine uptake in humans. Environ Health Perspect 2002: 110: 927–937.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Haddow J.E., Palomaki G.E., Allan W.C., Williams J.R., Knight G.J., and Gagnon J., et al. Maternal thyroid deficiency during pregnancy and subsequent neuropsychological development of the child. N Engl J Med 1999: 341: 549–555.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hogue C. Environmental pollution: rocket-fueled river. Chem Eng News 2003: 81: 37–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson W.A., Joseph P., Laxman P., Tan K., Smith P.N., and Yu L., et al. Perchlorate accumulation in forage and edible vegetation. J Agric Food Chem 2005: 53: 369–373.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirk A.B., Martinelango P.K., Tian K., Dutta A., Smith E.E., and Dasgupta P.K. Perchlorate and iodide in dairy and breast milk. Environ Sci Technol 2005: 39: 2011–2017.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirk A.B., Smith E.E., Tian K., Anderson T.A., and Dasgupta P.K. Perchlorate in milk. Environ Sci Technol 2003: 37: 4979–4981.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein R.Z., Sargent J.D., Larsen P.R., Waisbren S.E., Haddow J.E., and Mitchell M.L. Relation of severity of maternal hypothyroidism to cognitive development of offspring. J Med Screen 2001: 8: 18–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korn E.L., and Graubard B.I. Confidence intervals for proportions with small expected number of positive counts estimated from survey data. Survey Methodol 1998: 24: 193–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamm S.H., Braverman L.E., Li F.X., Richman K., Pino S., and Howearth G. Thyroid health status of ammonium perchlorate workers: a cross-sectional occupational health study. J Occup Environ Med 1999: 41: 248–260.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence J.E., Lamm S.H., Pino S., Richman K., and Braverman L.E. The effect of short-term low-dose perchlorate on various aspects of thyroid function. Thyroid 2000: 10: 659–663.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mage DT, Allen RH, Gondy G., Smith W., Barr D.B., and Needham L.L. Estimating pesticide dose from urinary pesticide concentration data by creatinine correction in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES-III). J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 2004: 14: 457–465.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendiratta S.K., Dotson R.L., and Brooker R.T. Perchloric acid and perchlorates. In: Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: New York, NY, 1996 pp. 157–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merrill E.A., Clewell R.A., Robinson P.J., Jarabek A.M., Gearhart J.M., and Sterner T.R., et al. PBPK model for radioactive iodide and perchlorate kinetics and perchlorate-induced inhibition of iodide uptake in humans. Toxicol Sci 2005: 83: 25–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • NAS. 2005 Health Implications of Perchlorate Ingestion, National Research Council, National Academy Press: Washington, DC.

  • Pirkle JL, Needham L.L., and Sexton K. Improving exposure assessment by monitoring human tissues for toxic chemicals. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 1995: 5: 405–424.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tellez R., Chacon P.M., Crump K.S., Blount B.C., and Gibbs J.P. Chronic environmental exposure to perchlorate through drinking water and thyroid function during pregnancy and the neonatal period. Thyroid 2005: 15: 963–975.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Urbansky E.T., Brown S.K., Magnuson M.L., and Kelty C.A. Perchlorate levels in samples of sodium nitrate fertilizer derived from Chilean caliche. Environ Pollut 2001: 112: 299–302.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Valentin-Blasini L., Mauldin J.P., Maple D., and Blount B.C. Analysis of perchlorate in human urine using ion chromatography and electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Chem 2005: 77: 2475–2481.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westgard J.O., Barry P.L., Hunt M.R., and Groth T. A multi-rule Shewhart chart for quality control in clinical chemistry. Clin Chem 1981: 27: 493–501.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolff J. Perchlorate and the thyroid gland. Pharmacol Rev 1998: 50: 89–105.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wyngaarden J.B., Stanbury J.B., and Rapp B. The effects of iodide, perchlorate, thiocyanate and nitrate administration upon the iodide concentrating mechanism of the rat thyroid. Endocrinology 1953: 52: 568–574.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yu L., Canas J.E., Cobb G.P., Jackson W.A., and Anderson T.A. Uptake of perchlorate in terrestrial plants. Ecotoxicol Env Safety 2004: 58: 44–49.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank the staff at the National Center for Health Statistics and Westat who were responsible for planning and conducting the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), and E Gunter and C Pfeiffer for managing the National Center for Environmental Health's involvement with NHANES. We thank J Morrow for technical assistance, and K Caldwell for helpful discussions of data.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Benjamin C Blount.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Blount, B., Valentin-Blasini, L., Osterloh, J. et al. Perchlorate Exposure of the US Population, 2001–2002. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 17, 400–407 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jes.7500535

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jes.7500535

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Quick links