Abstract
Objectives: There is epidemiologic evidence that the consumption of fried, grilled or barbecued meat and fish that are well-done or browned may be associated with an increased cancer risk. These high-temperature cooking methods are thought to be surrogates for mutagens and carcinogens produced in meat and fish, eg heterocyclic amines or polycyclic hydrocarbons. Since data on food cooking methods are scarce, the aim of this study was to describe the variation in meat and fish cooking methods in different parts of Europe.
Design: Using a standardized 24 h recall from a sub-sample of the EPIC cohort (35 644 persons, 35–75 y old), mean daily intake of meat and fish prepared by different cooking methods and the relative contribution of the cooking methods to the overall cooking of meat and fish was calculated.
Results: Whereas frying was more often noted in northern Europe, roasting and stir frying were more often used in the south. Concerning high-temperature cooking methods, their frequency of application varies between 15% in the EPIC cohort of North-Italy and 49% in the cohort of The Netherlands. Average consumption of fried, grilled and barbecued meat and fish ranges from a low of 12 g/day in the centres in southern Spain to a high of 91 g/day in northern Spain.
Conclusion: High variation in both the kind of meat/fish consumed as well as its cooking methods is observed within EPIC. In order to use this variation for the evaluation of the impact of cooking methods on cancer risk, a questionnaire on meat and fish cooking methods is being developed and could be applied in the whole EPIC cohort.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
$259.00 per year
only $21.58 per issue
Rent or buy this article
Prices vary by article type
from$1.95
to$39.95
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adamson RH, Thorgeirsson UP, Snyderwine EG, Thorgeirsson SS, Reeves J, Dalgard DW, Takayama S, Sugimura T . 1990 Carcinogenicity of 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline in non-human primates: induction of tumors in three macaques Jpn. J. Cancer Res. 81: 10–14
Ambrosone CB, Freudenheim JL, Sinha R, Graham S, Marshall JR, Vena JE, Laughon R, Nemoto R, Shields PG . 1998 Breast cancer risk, meat consumption and N-acetyltransferase (NAT2) genetic polymorphisms Int. J. Cancer 75: 825–839
Augustsson K, Lindblad J, Övervik E, Steineck G . 1999a A population-based dietary inventory of cooked meat and assessment of the daily intake of food mutagens Food Additives Contamin. 16: 215–225
Augustsson K, Skog K, Jägerstad M, Dickman PW, Steineck G . 1999b Dietary heterocyclic amines and cancer of the colon, rectum, bladder, and kidney: a population-based study Lancet 353: 703–707
Deitz AC, Zheng W, Leff MA, Gross M, Wen W-Q, Doll MA, Xiao GH, Folsom AR, Hein DW . 2000 N-Acetyltransferase 2 genetic polymorphisms, well-done meat intake, and breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 9: 905–910
Delfino RJ, Sinha R, Smith C, West J, White E, Lin HJ, Liao S-Y, Gim JSY, Ma HL, Butler J, Anton-Culver H . 2000 Breast cancer, heterocyclic amines from meat and N-acetyltransferase 2 genotype Carcinogenesis 21: 607–615
De Stefani E, Doneo-Pellegrini H, Mendilaharsu M, Ronco A . 1997a Meat intake, heterocyclic amines and risk of colorectal cancer: a case-control study in Uruguay Int. J. Oncol. 10: 573–580
De Stefani E, Ronco A, Mendilaharsu M, Guidobono M, Doneo-Pellegrini H . 1997b Meat intake, heterocyclic amines, and risk of breast cancer: a case–control study in Uruguay Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 6: 573–581
De Stefani E, Boffetta P, Mendilaharsu M, Carzoglio J, Deneo-Pellegrini H . 1998a Dietary nitrosamines, heterocyclic amines, and risk of gastric cancer: a case–control study in Uruguay Nutr. Cancer 30: 158–162
De Stefani E, Ronco A, Mendilaharsu M, Doneo-Pellegrini H . 1998b Case–control study on the role of heterocyclic amines in the etiology of upper aerodigestive cancers in Uruguay Nutr. Cancer 32: 43–48
Doneo-Pellegrini H, De Stefani E, Ronco A, Mendilaharsu M, Carzoglio JC . 1996 Meat consumption and risk of lung cancer; a case-control study from Uruguay Lung Cancer 14: 195–205
Ferrari P, Slimani N, Ciampi A, Trichopoulos D, Naska A, Lauria C, Veglia F, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Ocké MC, Brustad M, Braaten T, Tormo MJ, Amiano P, Mattisson I, Johansson G, Welch A, Davey G, Overvad K, Tjønneland A, Clavel-Chapelon F, Thiebaut A, Linseisen J, Boeing H, Hemon B, Riboli E . 2002 Evaluation of misresporting in the 24-hour diet recalls in EPIC Pub. Health Nutr. (in press)
Gerhardsson de Verdier M, Hagman U, Peters UK, Steineck G, Övervik E . 1991 Meat, cooking methods and colorectal cancer: a case-referent study in Stockholm Int. J. Cancer 49: 520–525
Gertig DM, Hankinson SE, Hough H, Spiegelman D, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Kelsey KT, Hunter DJ . 1999 N-Acetyltransferase 2 genotypes, meat intake and breast cancer risk Int. J. Cancer 80: 13–17
Guillén MD, Sopelana P, Partearroyo . 1997 Food as a source of polycyclic aromatic carcinogens Rev. Environ. Health 13: 133–146
Jägerstad M, Laser Reuterswärd A, Öste R, Dalquist A, Grivas S, Olsson K, Nyhammar T . 1983 Creatine and Maillard reaction products as precursors of mutagenic compounds formed in fried beef ACS Symp. Ser. 215: 507–519
Johansson MAE, Jägerstad M . 1994 Occurrence of mutagenic/carcinogenic heterocyclic amines in meat and fish products, including pan residues, prepared under domestic conditions Carcinogenesis 15: 1511–1518
Kampman E, Slattery ML, Bigler J, Leppert M, Samowitz W, Caan BJ, Potter JD . 1999 Meat consumption, genetic susceptibility, and colon cancer risk: a United States multicenter case–control study Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 8: 14–24
Keating GA, Bogen KT . 2001 Methods to estimate heterocyclic aromatic amine concentrations in cooked meats in the US diet Food Chem. Toxicol. 11: 29–43
Knize MG, Sinha R, Salmon CP, Metha SS, Dewhirst KP, Felton JS . 1996 Formation of heterocyclic amine mutagens/carcinogens during home and commercial cooking of muscle food J. Muscle Foods 7: 271–279
Larsson BK, Sahlberg GP, Eriksson AT, Busk LÅ . 1983 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled food J. Agric. Food Chem. 31: 867–873
Linseisen J, Kesse E, Slimani N, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Ocké MC, Skeie G, Kumle M, Iraeta MD, Gómez PM, Janzon L, Stattin P, Welch A, Spencer EA, Overvad K, Tjønneland A, Clavel-Clapelon F, Miller AB, Klipstein-Grobusch K, Lagiou P, Kalapothaki V, Masala G, Giurdanella MC, Norat T, Riboli E . 2002 Meat consumption in the EPIC cohorts—results from the 24-hour dietary recalls Pub. Health Nutr. (in press)
Lyon JL, Mahoney AW . 1988 Fried foods and the risk of colon cancer Am. J. Epidemiol. 128: 1000–1006
Muscat JE, Wynder EL . 1994 The consumption of well-done red meat and the risk of colorectal cancer Am. J. Public Health 84: 856–858
Norrish AE, Ferguson LR, Knize MG, Felton JS, Sharpe SJ, Jackson RT . 1999 Heterocyclic amine content of cooked meat and risk of prostate cancer J. Natl Cancer Inst. 91: 2038–2044
Parkin DM, Whelan SL, Ferlay J, Raymond L, Young J . 1997 Cancer Incidence in Five Continents Vol. VII. IARC Scientific Publications no. 143 Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer
Probst-Hensch NM, Sinha R, Longnecker MP, Witte JS, Ingles SA, Frankl HD, Lee ER, Haile RW . 1997 Meat preparation and colorectal adenomas in a large sigmoidoscopy-based case–control study in California (United States) Cancer Causes Control 8: 175–183
Riboli E . 1992 Nutrition and cancer: background and rationale of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) Ann. Oncol. 3: 783–791
Riboli E, Kaaks R . 1997 The EPIC Project: rationale and study design Int. J. Epidemiol. 26: (Suppl 1) S6–S14
Rothman N, Correa-Villasenor A, Ford DP, Poirier MC, Haas R, Hansen JA, O'Toole T, Strickland PT . 1993 Contribution of occupation and diet to white blood cell polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon–DNA adducts in Wildland firefighters Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 2: 341–347
Schiffman MH, Felton JS . 1990 Re: ‘Fried foods and the risk of colon cancer’ Am. J. Epidemiol. 131: 376–378
Shirai T, Tamano S, Sano M, Masui T, Hasegawa R, Ito N . 1995 Carcinogenicity of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) in rats: dose–response studies Princess Takamatsu Symposia 23: 232–239
Sinha R, Rothman N . 1999 Role of well-done, grilled red meat, heterocyclic amines (HCAs) in the etiology of human cancer Cancer Lett. 143: 189–194
Sinha R, Kulldorff M, Curtin J, Brown CC, Alavanja MCR, Swanson CA . 1998 Fried, well-done red meat and risk of lung cancer in women (United States) Cancer Causes Control 9: 621–630
Sinha R, Chow WH, Kulldorff M, Denobile J, Butler J, Garcia-Closas M, Weil R, Hoover RN, Rothman N . 1999 Well-done, grilled red meat increases the risk of colorectal adenomas Cancer Res. 59: 4320–4324
Sinha R, Gustafson DR, Kulldorf M, Wen W-Q, Cerhan JR, Zheng W . 2000a 2-Amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine, a carcinogen in high-temperature-cooked meat, and breast cancer risk J. Natl Cancer Inst. 92: 1352–1354
Sinha R, Kulldorff M, Swanson CA, Curtin J, Brownson RC, Alavanja MCR . 2000b Dietary heterocyclic amines and the risk of lung cancer among Missouri women Cancer Res. 60: 3753–3757
Sinha R, Kulldorff M, Chow W-H, Denobile J, Rothman N . 2001 Dietary intake of heterocyclic amines, meat-derived mutagenic activity, and risk of colorectal adenomas Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 10: 559–562
Skog K, Steineck G, Augustsson K, Jägerstad M . 1995 Effect of cooking temperature on the formation of heterocyclic amines in fried meat products and pan residues Carcinogenesis 16: 861–867
Skog KI, Johansson MAE, Jägerstad MI . 1998 Carcinogenic heterocyclic amines in model systems and cooked foods: a review on formation, occurrence and intake Food Chem. Toxicol. 36: 879–896
Slimani N, Deharveng G, Charrondière RU, van Kappel AL, Ocké MC, Welch A, Lagiou A, van Liere M, Agudo A, Pala V, Brandstetter B, Andren C, Stripp C, van Staveren WA, Riboli E . 1999 Structure of the standardised computeried 24-h recall interview used as reference method in the 22 centers participating in the EPIC project Comp. Meth. Progr. Biomed. 58: 251–266
Slimani N, Ferrari P, Ocké MC, Welch A, Boeing H, van Liere A, Pala V, Amiano P, Lagiou A, Mattisson I, Stripp C, Engset D, Charrondière R, Buzzard M, van Staveren W, Riboli E . 2000 Standardization of the 24-hour diet recall calibration method used in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): general concepts and preliminary results Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 54: 900–917
Steineck G, Hagman U, Gerhardsson de Verdier M, Norell SE . 1990 Vitamin A supplements, fried foods, fat and urothelial cancer. A case-referent study in Stockholm in 1985–87 Int. J. Cancer 45: 1006–1011
Tavani A, La Vecchia C, Gallus S, Lagiou P, Trichopoulos D, Levi F, Negri E . 2000 Red meat intake and cancer risk Int. J. Cancer 86: 425–429
Ward MH, Sinha R, Heineman EF, Rothman N, Markin R, Weisenburger DD, Correa P, Zahm SH . 1997 Risk of adenocarcinoma of the stomach and esophagus with meat cooking method and doneness preference Int. J. Cancer 71: 14–19
World Cancer Research Fund. 1997 Food, nutrition and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective Washington, DC: American Institute for Cancer Research
Zheng W, Gustafson DR, Sinha R, Cerhan JR, Moore D, Hong C-P, Anderson KE, Kushi LH, Sellers TA, Folsom AR . 1998 Well-done meat intake and the risk of breast cancer J. Natl Cancer Inst. 90: 1724–1729
Zheng W, Deitz AC, Campbell DR, Wen W-Q, Cerhan JR, Sellers TA, Folsom AR, Hein DW . 1999 N-Acetyltransferase 1 genetic polymorphism, cigarette smoking, well-done meat intake, and breast cancer risk Cancer Epidemol. Biomark. Prev. 8: 233–239
Acknowledgements
This work is part of the EPIC project supported by the ‘Europe Against Cancer’ Programme of the European Commission.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Rohrmann, S., Linseisen, J., Becker, N. et al. Cooking of meat and fish in Europe—results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). Eur J Clin Nutr 56, 1216–1230 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601494
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601494
Keywords
This article is cited by
-
Association of MTHFR C677T and A1298C polymorphisms with non-Hodgkin lymphoma susceptibility: Evidence from a meta-analysis
Scientific Reports (2014)
-
Exposure factors resources: contrasting EPA’s Exposure Factors Handbook with international sources
Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology (2014)
-
Analysis of heterocyclic aromatic amines
Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry (2007)
-
Method of Cooking and Risk of Breast Cancer in the Philippines
Cancer Causes & Control (2006)
-
Potential sources of carcinogenic heterocyclic amines in the Chinese diet: results from a 24-h dietary recall study in Singapore
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2005)