Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Disparities in screening mammography

Current status, interventions, and implications

  • Review
  • Published:
Journal of General Internal Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

OBJECTIVE: This paper describes trends in screening mammography utilization over the past decade and assesses the remaining disparities in mammography use among medically underserved women. We also describe the barriers to mammography and report effective interventions to enhance utilization.

DESIGN: We reviewed medline and other databases as well as relevant bibliographies.

MAIN RESULTS: The United States has dramatically improved its use of screening mammography over the past decade, with increased rates observed in every demographic group. Disparities in screening mammography are decreasing among medically underserved populations but still persist among racial/ethnic minorities and low-income women. Additionally, uninsured women and those with no usual care have the lowest rates of reported mammogram use. However, despite apparent increases in mammogram utilization, there is growing evidence that limitations in the national survey databases lead to overestimations of mammogram use, particularly among low-income racial and ethnic minorities.

CONCLUSIONS: The United States may be farther from its national goals of screening mammography, particularly among underserved women, than current data suggests. We should continue to support those interventions that increase mammography use among the medically underserved by addressing the barriers such as cost, language and acculturation limitations, deficits in knowledge and cultural beliefs, literacy and health system barriers such as insurance and having a source regular of medical care. Addressing disparities in the diagnostic and cancer treatment process should also be a priority in order to affect significant change in health outcomes among the underserved.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. SEER Cancer Statistics. Available at: http://seer.cancer.gov. Accessed January 10, 2003.

  2. Chevarley F, White E. Recent trends in breast cancer mortality among white and black US women. Am J Public Health. 1997;87:775–81.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Eley JW, Hill HA, Chen VW, et al. Racial differences in survival from breast cancer: results of the National Cancer Institute Black/White cancer survival study. JAMA. 1994;272:947–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Hedeen AN, White E. Breast cancer size and stage in Hispanic American women, by birthplace: 1992–95. Am J Public Health. 2001;91:122–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Lannin DR, Mathews HF, Mitchell J, Swanson MS, Swanson FH, Edwards MS. Influence of socioeconomic and cultural factors on racial differences in late-stage presentation of breast cancer. JAMA. 1998;279:1801–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Randolph WM, Goodwin JS, Mahnken JD, Freeman JL. Regular mammography use is associated with elimination of age-related disparities in size and stage of breast cancer at diagnosis. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137:783–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Anonymous. Self-reported use of mammography and insurance status among women aged greater than or equal to 40 years—United States, 1991–92 and 1996–97. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1998;47:825–30.

  8. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Special Report. Access to health care in the United States: results of a 1986 survey. 1987;2:1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Katz SJ, Hofer TP. Socioeconomic disparities in preventive care persist despite universal coverage: breast and cervical cancer screening in Ontario and the United States. JAMA. 1994;272:530–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Blackman DK, Bennett EM, Miller DS. Trends in self-reported use of mammograms (1989–97) and papanicolaou tests 1994–97—Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1999;48:1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Swan J, Breen N, Coates RJ, Rimer BK, Lee NC. Progress in cancer screening practices in the United States. Results from the 2000 National Health Interview Study. Cancer. 2003;97:1528–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Hedegaard HB, Davidson AJ, Wright RA. Factors associated with screening mammography in low-income women. Am J Prev Med. 1996;12:51–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Blustein J. Medicare coverage, supplemental insurance, and the use of mammography by older women. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:1138–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Burns RB, McCarthy EP, Freund KM, et al. Black women receive less mammography even with similar use of primary care. Ann Intern Med. 1996;125:173–82.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Makuc DM, Breen N, Freid V. Low income, race, and the use of mammography. Health Serv Res. 1999;34:229–39.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Corbie-Smith G, Flagg EW, Doyle JP, O’Brien MA. Influence of usual source of care on differences by race/ethnicity in receipt of preventive services. J Gen Intern Med. 2002;17:458–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Gilliland FD, Rosenberg RD, Hunt WC, et al. Patterns of mammography use among Hispanic, American Indian, and Non-Hispanic white women in New Mexico, 1994–97. Am J Epidemiol. 2000;152:432–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Zambrana RE, Breen N, Fox SA, Gutierrez-Mohamed ML. Use of cancer screening practices by Hispanic women: analyses by subgroup. Prev Med. 1999;29:466–77.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Ramirez AG, Talavera GA, Villareal R, et al. Breast cancer screening in regional Hispanic populations. Health Educ Res. 2000;15:559–68.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Fiscella K, Franks P, Doescher MP, Saver BG. Dispartities in health care by race, ethnicity, and language among the insured. Med Care. 2002;40:52–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Coughlin SS, Uhler RJ. Breast and cervical cancer screening practices among Asian and Pacific Islander women in the United States, 1994–97. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2000;9:597–603.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Anonymous. Behavioral Risk Factor Survey of Chinese—California, 1989. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1992;41:266–70.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Anonymous. Behavioral Risk Factor Survey of Korean Americans—Alameda County California, 1994. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1997;46:774–7.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Anonymous. Behavioral Risk Factor Survey of Vietnamese—California, 1991. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1992;41:69–72.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Kagawa-Singer M, Pourat N. Asian American and Pacific Islander breast and cervical carcinoma screening rates and Healthy People 2000 Objectives. Cancer. 2000;89:696–705.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Hiatt R, Pasick R, Perez-Stable E, et al. Pathways to early cancer detection in the multiethnic population of the San Francisco Bay Area. Health Educ Q. 1996;23(suppl):S10-S27.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Wismer BA, Moskowitz JM, Chen AM, et al. Mammography and clinical breast examination among Korean American women in two California counties. Prev Med. 1998;27:144–51.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Kelly AW, Chacori MD, Wollan PC, et al. A program to increase breast and cervical cancer screening for Cambodian women in a Midwestern community. Mayo Clin Proc. 1996;71:437–44.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Tu SP, Yasui Y, Kuniyuki A, et al. Breast cancer screening among Cambodian American women. Cancer Detect Prev. 2000;24:549–63.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Maxwell AE, Bastani R, Warda US. Demographic predictors of cancer screening among Filipino and Korean immigrants in the United States. Am J Prev Med. 2000;18:62–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Sadler GR, Dhanjal SK, Shah NB, et al. Asian Indian women: knowledge, attitudes and behaviors toward breast cancer early detection. Public Health Nurs. 2001;18:357–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Coughlin SS, Uhler RJ, Blackman DK. Breast and cervical cancer screening practices among American Indian and Alaska Native women in the United States, 1992–97. Prev Med. 1999;29:287–95.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Cobb N, Paisano RE. Patterns of cancer mortality among Native Americans. Cancer. 1998;83:2377–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Gilliland FD, Mahler R, Hunt WC, Davis SM. Preventive health care among rural American Indians in New Mexico. Prev Med. 1999;28:194–202.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Giuliano A, Papenfuss M, Guernsey de Zapien J, Tilousi S, Nuvayestewa L. Breast cancer screening among Southwest American Indian women living on-reservation. Prev Med. 1998;27:135–43.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Strauss KF, Mokdad A, Ballew C, et al. The health of Navajo women: findings from the Navajo Health and Nutrition Survey, 1991–92. J Nutr. 1997;127(suppl):2128S-2133S.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Coughlin SS, Thompson TD, Hall HI, Logan P, Uhler RJ. Breast and cervical carcinoma screening practices among women in rural and nonrural areas of the United States, 1998–99. Cancer. 2002;94:2801–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Kreher NE, Hinkner JM, Rufin MT, Lin CH. Effect of distance and travel time on rural women’s compliance with screening mammography: the UPRNet study. J Fam Pract. 1995;40:143–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. O’Malley MS, Earp JL, Harris RP. Race and mammography use in two North Carolina counties. Am J Public Health. 1997;87:782–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Hall HI, Uhler RJ, Coughlin SS, Miller DS. Breast and cervical cancer screening among Appalachian women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2002;11:137–42.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Cancer Statistics Review 1973–1987. SEER Program. NIH Publication no. 90-2789. Bethesda, Md: US Dept. of Health and Human Services, PHS, NIH, NCI.

  42. Smith-Bindman R, Kerlikowske K, Gebretsadik T, Newman J. Is screening mammography effective in elderly women? Am J Med. 2000;108:112–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Randolph WM, Goodwin JS, Mahnken JD, Freeman JL. Regular mammography use is associated with elimination of age-related disparities in size and stage of breast cancer at diagnosis. Ann Intern Med. 2002;137:783–90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Satariano WA, Ragland DR. The effect of comorbidity on 3-year survival of women with primary breast cancer. Ann Intern Med. 1994;120:104–10.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Walter LC, Eng C, Covinsky KE. Screening mammography for frail older women. What are the burdens? J Gen Intern Med. 2001;16:779–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Smith RA, D’Orsi CJ. Broast imaging and image-guided biopsy dechniques. In: Harris JR, ed. Screening for Breast Cancer. Diseases of the Breast, 2nd edn. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Hiatt RA, Perez-Stable EJ, Quesenberry C Jr, Sabogal F, Otero-Sabogal R, McPhee SJ. Agreement between self-reported early cancer detection practices and medical audits among Hispanic and non-Hispanic white health plan members in Northern California. Prev Med. 1995;24:278–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Johnson CS, Archer J, Campos-Outcalt D. Accuracy of Pap smear and mammogram self-reports in a Southwestern Native American tribe. Am J Prev Med. 1995;11:360–3.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Champion VL, Menon U, McQuillen DH, Scott C. Validity of self-reported mammography in low-income African American women. Am J Prev Med. 1998;14:111–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Bureau of the Census. Phoneless in America. Statistical Brief 94-16, July 1994. US Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.

  51. BRFSS Survey Protocol Site. Available at: http://www2.cdc.gov/nccdphp/brfss2/training_gu/dispositions.asp. Accessed September 8, 2003.

  52. Baquet CR. Native Americans’ cancer rates in comparison with other peoples of color. Cancer. 1996;78:1538–44.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Bolen JC, Rhodes L, Powell-Griner EE, et al. State-specific prevalence of selected health behaviors, by race and ethnicity—Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 1997. In: CDC Surveillance Summaries, Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2000;49:1–60.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Thompson BL, O’Connor P, Boyle R, et al. Measuring clinical performance: comparison and validity of telephone survey and administrative data. Health Serv Res. 2001;36:813–25.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Lawrence VA, De Moor C, Glenn ME. Systematic differences in validity of self-reported mammography behavior: a problem for intergroup comparisons? Prev Med. 1999;29:575–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Bloom SA, Harris JR, Thompson BL, Ahmed F, Thompson J. Tracking clinical preventive service use: a comparison of the Health Plan Employer Data and Information Set with the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Med Care. 2000;3:187–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. McPhee SJ, Nguyen TT, Shema SJ, et al. Validation of recall of breast and cervical cancer screening by women in an ethnically diverse population. Prev Med. 2002;35:463–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. O’Malley AS, Mandelblatt J, Gold K, Cagney KA, Kerner J. Continuity of care and the use of breast and cervical cancer screening services in a multiethnic community. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1462–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Kiefe CI, McKay SV, Halevy A, Brody BA. Is cost a barrier to screening mammography for low-income women receiving Medicare benefits? A randomized trial. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154:1217–24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. O’Malley AS, Forrest CB, Mandelblatt J. Adherence of low-income women to cancer screening recommendations: the roles of primary care, health insurance, and HMOs. J Gen Intern Med. 2002;17:144–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Ettner SL. The timing of preventive services for women and children: the effect of having a usual source of care. Am J Public Health. 1996;86:1748–54.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. O’Malley AS, Mandelblatt J, Gold K, Cagney KA, Kerner J. Continuity of care and the use of breast and cervical cancer screening services in a multiethnic community. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1462–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Fox SA, Siu AL, Stein JA. The importance of physician communication on breast cancer screening of older women. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154:2058–68.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Schulman K, Berlin J, Harless W, et al. The effect of race and sex on physicians’ recommendations for cardiac catheterization. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:618–26.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Grady KE, Lemkau JP, McVay JM, et al. Clinical decision-making and mammography referral. Prev Med. 1996;25:327–38.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Williams RL, Flocke SA, Stange KC. Race and preventive services delivery among black patients and white patients seen in primary care. Med Care. 2001;39:1260–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Smith RA, Haynes S. Barriers to screening for breast cancer. Cancer. 1992;69:1968–78.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Loehrer PJ, Greger HA, Weinberger M, et al. Knowledge and beliefs about cancer in a socioeconomically disadvantaged population. Cancer. 1991;68:1665–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Pham CT, McPhee SJ. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of breast and cervical cancer screening among Vietnamese women. J Cancer Educ. 1992;7:305–10.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Perez-Stable EJ, Sabogal F, Otero-Sabogal R, et al. Misconceptions about cancer among Latinos and Anglos. JAMA. 1992;268:3219–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Kagawa-Singer M. Addressing issues for early detection and screening in ethnic populations. Oncol Nurs Forum. 1997;24:1705–11.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Lawson EJ. A narrative analysis: a Black woman’s perceptions of breast cancer risks and early breast cancer detection. Cancer Nursing. 1998;21:421–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Phillips JM, Cohen MZ, Moses G. Breast cancer screening and African American women: fear, fatalism, and silence. Oncol Nurs Forum. 1999;26:561–71.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Glanz K, ed. Cancer in African American Women. In: Cancer in Women of Color Monograph. DHHS, NCI; January 2003. Available at: http://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/womenofcolor/. Accessed September 10, 2003.

  75. Woloshin S, Schwartz LM, Katz SJ, Welch HG. Is language a barrier to the use of preventive services? J Gen Intern Med. 1997;12:472–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Fiscella K, Franks P, Doescher MP, Saver BG. Disparities in health care by race, ethnicity, and language among the insured. Med Care. 2002;40:52–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Perez-Stable EJ, Sabogal F, Otero-Sabogal R. Use of cancer-screening tests in the San Francisco bay area: comparison of Latinos and Anglos. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;18:147–53.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Solis JM, Marks G, Garcia M, Shelton D. Acculturation, access to care, and use of preventive services by Hispanics: findings from HHANES 1982–84. Am J Public Health. 1990;80(suppl):11–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Suarez L. Pap smear and mammogram screening in Mexican-American women. The effects of acculturation. Am J Public Health. 1994;84:742–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Coe K, Harmon MP, Castro FG, et al. Breast self-examination: knowledge and practices of Hispanic women in two southwestern metropolitan areas. J Community Health. 1994;19:433–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Williams MV, Parker RM, Baker DW, et al. Inadequate functional health literacy among patients at two public hospitals. JAMA. 1995;274:1677–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Davis TC, Arnold C, Berkel HJ, Nandy I, Jackson RH, Glass J. Knowledge and attitude on screening mammography among low-literate, low-income women. Cancer. 1996;78:1677–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Davis TC, Williams MV, Marin E, Parker R, Glass J. Health literacy and cancer communication. CA Cancer J Clin. 2002;52:134–49.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Ad Hoc Committee on Health Literacy for the Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association. Health literacy: report of the Council on Scientific Affairs. JAMA. 1999;281:552–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Burhansstipanov L. National Cancer Institute’s Native American Cancer Research Projects. Alaska Med. 1993;35:248–54.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. May DS, Lee NC, Nadel MR, Henson RM, Miller DS. The National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program: report on the first 4 years of mammography provided to medically under-served women. Am J Roentgenol. 1998;170:97–104.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Henson RM, Wyatt SW, Lee NC. The National Breast and Cervical Early Detection Program: a comprehensive public health response to two major health issues for women. J Public Health Manag Pract. 1996;2:36–47.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Legler J, Meissner HI, Coyne C, et al. The effectiveness of inter-ventions to promote mammography among women with historically lower rates of screening. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2002;11:59–71.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Skinner CS, Strecher VJ, Hospers H. Physicians’ recommendations for mammography: do tailored messages make a difference? Am J Public Health. 1994;84:43–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Yarbroff KR, O’Malley A, Mangan P, Mandelblatt J. Inreach and outreach interventions to improve mammography use. JAMA. 2001;56:166–73.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Zavertnik JJ, McCoy CB, Robinson DS, Love N. Cost-effective management of breast cancer. Cancer. 1992;69:1979–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Flynn BS, Gavin P, Worden JK, Ashikaga T, Gautam S, Carpenter J. Community education programs to promote mammography participation in rural New York state. Prev Med. 1997;26:102–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Yabroff KR, Mandelblatt JS. Interventions targeted toward patients to increase mammography use. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999;8:749–57.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Skaer TL, Robison LM, Sclar DA, Harding GH. Financial incentive and the use of mammography among Hispanic migrants to the United States. Health Care Women Int. 1996;17:281–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Suarez L, Nichols DC, Brady CA. Use of peer role models to increase Pap smear and mammogram screening in Mexican-American and black women. Am J Prev Med. 1993;9:290–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Mayer JA, Kossman MK, Miller LC, Crooks CE, Slymen DJ, Lee CD. Evaluation of a media-based mammography program. Am J Prev Med. 1992;8:23–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Anonymous. Dramatic print ads raise awareness. NorthEast Medical Center’s breast health campaign. Profiles Healthc Mark. 2002;18:15–9.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Breen N, Kessler LG, Brown ML. Breast cancer control among the underserved—an overview. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 1996;40:105–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Husaini B, Castor R, Linn J, Moore S, Warren H, Whitten-Stovall R. Social support and depression among the black and white elderly. J Community Psychol. 1990;18:12–8.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Husaini B, Moor S, Castor R, et al. Social density, stressors, and depression: gender differences among the black elderly. J Gerontol. 1991;46:236–42.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Gibson RC, Jackson JS. The health, physical functioning, and informal supports of the black elderly. Milbank Q. 1987;65:421–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Kang SH, Bloom JR, Romano PS. Cancer screening among African-American women: their use of tests and social support. Am J Public Health. 1994;84:101–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Kang SH, Bloom JR. Social support and cancer screening among older Black Americans. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85:737–42.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Weber BE, Reilly BM. Enhancing mammography use in the inner city. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:2345–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Brownstein JN, Cheal N, Ackerman SP, Bassford TL, Campos-Outcalt D. Breast and cervical cancer screening in minority populations: a model for using lay health educators. J Cancer Educ. 1992;7:321–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Gotay CC, Banner RO, Matsunaga DS, et al. Impact of a culturally appropriate intervention on breast and cervical screening among Native Hawaiian women. Prev Med. 2000;31:529–37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Navarro AM, Senn KL, McNicholas LJ, Kaplan RM, Roppe B, Campo MC. Por la vida model intervention enhances use of cancer screening tests among Latinas. Am J Prev Med. 1998;15:32–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Skinner CS, Sykes RK, Monsees BS, Adriole DA, Arfken CL, Fisher EB. Learn, share and live: breast cancer education for older, urban minority women. Health Educ Behav. 1998;25:60–78.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Anderson MR, Yasui Y, Meischke H, Kuniyuki A, Etzioni R, Urban N. The effectiveness of mammography promotion by volunteers in rural communities. Am J Prev Med. 2000;18:199–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  110. Institute of Medicine. Unequal treatment: confronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care. Available at: http://www.nap.edu. Accessed January 15, 2003.

  111. Gordon NP, Rundall TG, Parker L. Type of health care coverage and the likelihood of being screened for cancer. Med Care. 1998;36:636–45.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Makuc DM, Fried VM, Parsons PE. Health insurance and cancer screening among women. Adv Data. 1994;254:1–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Reisch LM, Barton MB, Fletcher SW, Kreuter W, Elmore JG. Breast cancer screening use by African Americans and whites in an HMO. J Gen Intern Med. 2000;15:229–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. DeLaet DE, Shea S, Olveen C. Receipt of preventive services among privately insured minorities in managed care versus fee-for-service insurance plans. J Gen Intern Med. 2002;17:451–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Haas JS, Phillips KA, Sonneborn DMA, McCulloch CE, Liang S. Effect of managed care insurance on the use of preventive care for specific ethnic groups in the United States. Med Care. 2002;40:743–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Mandelblatt JS, Yabroff KR. Effectiveness of interventions designed to increase mammography use: a meta-analysis of provider-targeted strategies. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1999;8:759–67.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Tierney WM, Hui SL, McDonald CJ. Delayed feedback of physician performance versus immediate reminders to perform preventive care. Med Care. 1986;24:659–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Cheney C, Ramsdell JW. Effect of medical records’ checklists on implementation of periodic health measures. Am J Med. 1987;83:129–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Davidson RA, Fletcher SW, Retchin S, Duh S. A nurse-initiated reminder system for the periodic health examination. Implementation and evaluation. Arch Intern Med. 1984;144:2167–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Clegg LX, Li FP, Hankey BF, Chu K, Edwards BK. Cancer survival among US whites and minorities. Arch Intern Med. 2002;162:1985–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Li CI, Malone KE, Daling JR. Differences in breast cancer stage, treatment, and survival by race and ethnicity. Arch Intern Med. 2002;163:49–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Monica E. Peek MD, MPH.

Additional information

Received from the Division of General Internal Medicine, Rush Medical College, Rush University Medical Center and John Stroger Hospital, Chicago, Ill.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Peek, M.E., Han, J.H. Disparities in screening mammography. J GEN INTERN MED 19, 184–194 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2004.30254.x

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-1497.2004.30254.x

Key words

Navigation