REVIEW PAPER
The historical decline of tobacco smoking among United States physicians: 1949–1984
 
 
More details
Hide details
1
WorkCover New South Wales Research Centre of Excellence, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Health, University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, Australia
 
 
Submission date: 2008-06-16
 
 
Acceptance date: 2008-09-09
 
 
Publication date: 2008-09-09
 
 
Tobacco Induced Diseases 2008;4(September):9
 
KEYWORDS
ABSTRACT
Background:
Tobacco use became an ingrained habit in the United States (US) following the First World War and a large proportion of physicians, similar to the general population, were smokers. The period from 1949 to 1984 was a pivotal era of change however, as the medical profession, like the society it served, became increasingly aware of the dangers that tobacco incurred for health.

Methods:
An extensive review targeted all manuscripts published in academic journals between 1949 and 1984 that related to tobacco smoking among US physicians. The study was undertaken in 2007–08 with an internet search of relevant medical databases, after which time the reference lists of manuscripts were also examined to find additional articles.

Results:
A total of 57 manuscripts met the inclusion criteria. From a research perspective, the methodology and coverage of smoking surveys ranged from detailed national investigations, to local medical association surveys, and journal readership questionnaires. From a historical perspective, it can be seen that by the 1950s many US physicians had begun questioning the safety of tobacco products, and by the 1960s and 1970s, this had resulted in a continuous decline in tobacco use. By the 1980s, few US physicians were still smoking, and many of their younger demographic had probably never smoked at all.

Conclusion:
Although the quality and coverage of historical surveys varied over time, a review of their main results indicates a clear and consistent decline in tobacco use among US physicians between 1949 and 1984. Much can be learned from this pivotal era of public health, where the importance of scientific knowledge, professional leadership and social responsibility helped set positive examples in the fight against tobacco.

 
REFERENCES (106)
1.
Garfinkel L: Trends in cigarette smoking in the United States. Preventive medicine. 1997, 26 (4): 447-450. 10.1006/pmed.1997.0191.
 
2.
Giovino GA: Epidemiology of tobacco use in the United States. Oncogene. 2002, 21 (48): 7326-7340. 10.1038/sj.onc.1205808.
 
3.
Mahaney FX: Oldtime ads tout health benefits of smoking: tobacco industry had doctors' help. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1994, 86 (14): 1048-1049. 10.1093/jnci/86.14.1048.
 
4.
Gardner MN, Brandt AM: "The doctors' choice is America's choice": the physician in US cigarette advertisements, 1930–1953. American journal of public health. 2006, 96 (2): 222-232.
 
5.
When "more doctors smoked Camels": cigarette advertising in the Journal. New York state journal of medicine. 1983, 83 (13): 1347-1352.
 
6.
Bartrip P: Pushing the weed: the editorializing and advertising of tobacco in the Lancet and the British Medical Journal, 1880–1958. Clio medica (Amsterdam, Netherlands). 1998, 46: 100-126. discussion 127-109.
 
7.
Kawane H: When doctors advertised cigarettes. Tob Control. 1993, 2: 45-.
 
8.
Smoking and Health. Report of the advisory committee to the surgeon general of the public health service. 1964, Washington: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare.
 
9.
The role of health professionals in tobacco control. 2005, Geneva: World Health Organization.
 
10.
Garfinkel L: Cigarette smoking among physicians and other health professionals, 1959–1972. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians. 1976, 26 (6): 373-375. 10.3322/canjclin.26.6.373.
 
11.
Physician and other health-care professional counseling of smokers to quit – United States, 1991. Mmwr. 1993, 42 (44): 854-857.
 
12.
Nett LM: The physician's role in smoking cessation. A present and future agenda. Chest. 1990, 97 (2 Suppl): 28S-32S. 10.1378/chest.97.2.28S.
 
13.
Garfinkel L, Stellman SD: Cigarette smoking among physicians, dentists, and nurses. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians. 1986, 36 (1): 2-8. 10.3322/canjclin.36.1.2.
 
14.
Davis RM: When doctors smoke. Tob Control. 1993, 2: 187-188. 10.1136/tc.2.3.187.
 
15.
Smoking control among health-care workers – World No-Tobacco Day, 1993. Mmwr. 1993, 42 (19): 365-367.
 
16.
Smith DR, Leggat PA: An international review of tobacco smoking in the medical profession: 1974–2004. BMC Public Health. 2007, 7 (1): 115-10.1186/1471-2458-7-115.
 
17.
Giovino GA, Henningfield JE, Tomar SL, Escobedo LG, Slade J: Epidemiology of tobacco use and dependence. Epidemiologic reviews. 1995, 17 (1): 48-65.
 
18.
Doctors have changed their smoking habits. Medical times. 1957, 85 (11): 1211-1223.
 
19.
Little DM: Physician, heal thyself. Anesthesiology. 1971, 35 (1): 1-3. 10.1097/00000542-197107000-00001.
 
20.
Vaillant GE, Brighton JR, McArthur C: Physicians' use of mood-altering drugs. A 20-year follow-up report. The New England journal of medicine. 1970, 282 (7): 365-370.
 
21.
Enstrom JE, Kanim LE: Smoking cessation among California physicians: an example of cancer control. Progress in clinical and biological research. 1984, 156: 255-264.
 
22.
Glanz K, Fiel SB, Walker LR, Levy MR: Preventive health behavior of physicians. Journal of medical education. 1982, 57 (8): 637-639.
 
23.
Samp RJ: Wisconsin physicians and cigarette smoking. Wisconsin medical journal. 1963, 62: 229-.
 
24.
Smith DR, Leggat PA: A comparison of tobacco smoking among dentists in 15 countries. International dental journal. 2006, 56 (5): 283-288.
 
25.
Smith DR, Leggat PA: An international review of tobacco smoking research in the nursing profession, 1976–2006. Journal of Research in Nursing. 2007, 12 (2): 165-181. 10.1177/1744987106074875.
 
26.
Scott HD, Tierney JT, Buechner JS, Waters WJ: Smoking rates among Rhode Island physicians: achieving a smoke-free society. American journal of preventive medicine. 1992, 8 (2): 86-90.
 
27.
Brill AA: Tobacco and the individual. Int J Psychoanal. 1922, 3: 430-444.
 
28.
Spain DM: The duty of the physician towards his patients in regard to cigarette smoking. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians. 1959, 9 (2): 62-64. 10.3322/canjclin.9.2.62.
 
29.
SMOKING and health; joint report of the Study Group on Smoking and Health. Science (New York, NY). 1957, 125 (3258): 1129-1133.
 
30.
Hammond EC, Horn D: The relationship between human smoking habits and death rates: a follow-up study of 187,766 men. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1954, 155 (15): 1316-1328.
 
31.
Hammond EC, Horn D: Smoking and death rates: report on forty-four months of follow-up of 187,783 men. 2. Death rates by cause. J Am Med Assoc. 1958, 166 (11): 1294-1308.
 
32.
Hammond EC, Horn D: Smoking and death rates; report on forty-four months of follow-up of 187,783 men. I. Total mortality. Journal of the American Medical Association. 1958, 166 (10): 1159-1172.
 
33.
Blum A, Solberg E, Wolinsky H: The Surgeon General's report on smoking and health 40 years later: still wandering in the desert. Lancet. 2004, 363 (9403): 97-98. 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)15310-X.
 
34.
Hammond EC, Van Griethuysen TH, Dibeler JB, Sneddon AM, Halligan W: Smoking habits and disease in New York State. New York state journal of medicine. 1965, 65 (20): 2557-2561.
 
35.
Hammond EC, Garfinkel L: Changes in cigarette smoking 1959–1965. American journal of public health and the nation's health. 1968, 58 (1): 30-45.
 
36.
Taylor HC: Physicians and cigarette smoking. JAMA. 1962, 181: 777-778.
 
37.
Garland LH: The smoking physician. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians. 1959, 9 (2): 60-61. 10.3322/canjclin.9.2.60.
 
38.
Long PH: Doctor, Can You Stop Smoking?. Medical times. 1964, 92: 407-408.
 
39.
Doll R, Gray R, Hafner B, Peto R: Mortality in relation to smoking: 22 years' observations on female British doctors. British medical journal. 1980, 280 (6219): 967-971.
 
40.
Doll R, Hill AB: The mortality of doctors in relation to their smoking habits; a preliminary report. British medical journal. 1954, 1 (4877): 1451-1455.
 
41.
Doll R, Hill AB: Mortality in Relation to Smoking: Ten Years' Observations of British Doctors. British medical journal. 1964, 1 (5395): 1399-1410.
 
42.
Doll R, Peto R: Mortality in relation to smoking: 20 years' observations on male British doctors. British medical journal. 1976, 2 (6051): 1525-1536.
 
43.
Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I: Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2004, 328 (7455): 1519-10.1136/bmj.38142.554479.AE.
 
44.
Doll R, Peto R, Wheatley K, Gray R, Sutherland I: Mortality in relation to smoking: 40 years' observations on male British doctors. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 1994, 309 (6959): 901-911.
 
45.
Snegireff LS, Lombard OM: Survey of smoking habits of Massachusetts physicians. The New England journal of medicine. 1954, 250 (24): 1042-1045.
 
46.
Christmas BW, Hay DR: The smoking habits of New Zealand doctors: a review after ten years. The New Zealand medical journal. 1976, 83 (565): 391-394.
 
47.
4,776 answer MM smoking survey. Mod Med Aust. 1964, 8: 1-4.
 
48.
Nishizumi M, Kuratsune M: A survey of smoking habits of physicians in Western Japan. Jpn J Public Health. 1967, 14: 1273-1294.
 
49.
Bourke GJ, Wilson-Davis K, Thornes D: Smoking habits of the medical profession in the Republic of Ireland. American journal of public health. 1972, 62 (4): 575-580.
 
50.
Phillips AJ, Taylor RM: Smoking habits of physicians in Canada. Canadian Medical Association journal. 1968, 99 (19): 955-957.
 
51.
Vuori H, Himanen P, Hanninen J, Jarvinen M, Rantanen T: The smoking habits of Finnish physicians. Int J Health Educ. 1971, 14: 68-74.
 
52.
Faith-Ell P, Wilhelmsen L: [The smoking habits of Swedish doctors in 1969 and 1972]. Lakartidningen. 1973, 70 (31): 2719-2722.
 
53.
Rankin DW, Gray NJ, Hill DJ, Evans DR: Attitudes and smoking habits of Australian doctors. The Medical journal of Australia. 1975, 2 (22): 822-824.
 
54.
Aaro LE, Bjartveit K, Vellar OD, Berglund EL: Smoking habits among Norwegian doctors 1974. Scandinavian journal of social medicine. 1977, 5 (3): 127-135.
 
55.
Nelson DE, Giovino GA, Emont SL, Brackbill R, Cameron LL, Peddicord J, Mowery PD: Trends in cigarette smoking among US physicians and nurses. JAMA. 1994, 271 (16): 1273-1275. 10.1001/jama.271.16.1273.
 
56.
Hay DR: Cigarette smoking by New Zealand doctors: results from the 1976 population census. The New Zealand medical journal. 1980, 91 (658): 285-288.
 
57.
Wyshak G, Lamb GA, Lawrence RS, Curran WJ: A profile of the health-promoting behaviors of physicians and lawyers. The New England journal of medicine. 1980, 303 (2): 104-107.
 
58.
Burgess AM, Casey DV, Tierney JT, DePalo P: Cigarette smoking by Rhode Island physicians: a fifteen year update. Percentage of physicians who smoke continues to decrease. Rhode Island medical journal. 1980, 63 (9): 345-347.
 
59.
Supramaniam V: Habits and attitudes of Malaysian military doctors towards smoking. The Medical journal of Malaysia. 1980, 34 (3): 205-210.
 
60.
Ballal SG: Cigarette smoking and respiratory symptoms among Sudanese doctors. East African medical journal. 1984, 61 (2): 95-103.
 
61.
Adriaanse H, Halfens R, Drop MJ, van Reek J: Physicians, smoking, and health in the Netherlands. New York state journal of medicine. 1985, 85 (7): 394-395.
 
62.
Hay DR: Intercensal trends in cigarette smoking by New Zealand doctors and nurses. The New Zealand medical journal. 1984, 97 (754): 253-255.
 
63.
Senior SL: Study of smoking habits in hospital and attitudes of medical staff towards smoking. Canadian Medical Association journal. 1982, 126 (2): 131-133.
 
64.
Sharma TD: Smoking declines in a group of Indian doctors. World Health Forum. 1988, 9: 219-220.
 
65.
Stellman SD, Boffetta P, Garfinkel L: Smoking habits of 800,000 American men and women in relation to their occupations. American journal of industrial medicine. 1988, 13 (1): 43-58. 10.1002/ajim.4700130104.
 
66.
Buechner JS, Perry DK, Scott HD, Freedman BE, Tierney JT, Waters WJ: Cigarette smoking behavior among Rhode Island physicians, 1963–83. American journal of public health. 1986, 76 (3): 285-286.
 
67.
Seiler ER: Smoking habits of doctors and their spouses in south east Scotland. The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners. 1983, 33 (254): 598-.
 
68.
Joossens L, Demedts M, Prignot J, Bartsch P, Gyselen A: Smoking habits of Belgian physicians: effects of consonancy behaviour and of age. Acta clinica Belgica. 1987, 42 (6): 457-461.
 
69.
Kaetsu A, Fukushima T, Moriyama M, Shigematsu T: Smoking behavior and related lifestyle variables among physicians in Fukuoka, Japan: a cross sectional study. Journal of epidemiology/Japan Epidemiological Association. 2002, 12 (3): 199-207.
 
70.
Snegireff LS, Lombard OM: Comparative study of smoking habits of physicians. The New England journal of medicine. 1955, 252 (17): 691-696.
 
71.
Tate CI, Fulghum JE: Seventy Per Cent of Florida Physicians Are Nonsmokers. The Journal of the Florida Medical Association. 1965, 52: 47-48.
 
72.
Coe RM, Brehm HP: Smoking habits of physicians and preventive care practices. HSMHA health reports. 1971, 86 (3): 217-221.
 
73.
Eisinger RA: Cigarette smoking and the pediatrician. Findings based on a national survey. Clinical pediatrics. 1972, 11 (11): 645-647.
 
74.
Tamerin JS, Eisinger RA: Cigarette smoking and the psychiatrist. The American journal of psychiatry. 1972, 128 (10): 1224-1229.
 
75.
Fulghum JE, Groover ME, Williams AC, Braatz W: Smoking habits of Florida physicians revisited. JFMA, the Journal of the Florida Medical Association. 1972, 59 (10): 23-28.
 
76.
Wells KB, Lewis CE, Leake B, Ware JE: Do physicians preach what they practice? A study of physicians' health habits and counseling practices. JAMA. 1984, 252 (20): 2846-2848. 10.1001/jama.252.20.2846.
 
77.
Fortmann SP, Sallis JF, Magnus PM, Farquhar JW: Attitudes and practices of physicians regarding hypertension and smoking: The Stanford Five City Project. Preventive medicine. 1985, 14 (1): 70-80. 10.1016/0091-7435(85)90022-2.
 
78.
Sachs DP: Smoking habits of pulmonary physicians. The New England journal of medicine. 1983, 309 (13): 799-.
 
79.
Sachs DP: Treatment of cigarette dependency. What American pulmonary physicians do. The American review of respiratory disease. 1984, 129 (6): 1010-1013.
 
80.
Challberg K: Smoking habits of Rhode Island physicians. Rhode Island medical journal. 1979, 62 (6): 245-.
 
81.
Marwick C: Many physicians following own advice about not smoking. JAMA. 1984, 252 (20): 2804-10.1001/jama.252.20.2804.
 
82.
Burgess AM, Casey DB, Tierney JT: Cigarette smoking by Rhode Island physicians, 1963–1973: comparison with lawyers and other adult males. American journal of public health. 1978, 68 (1): 63-65.
 
83.
Burgess AM, Tierney JT: Rhode Island physicians' smoking habits revisited 1963–1968. Rhode Island medical journal. 1969, 52 (8): 437-440.
 
84.
Burgess AM, Tierney JT: Bias due to nonresponse in a mail survey of Rhode Island physicians' smoking habits – 1968. The New England journal of medicine. 1970, 282 (16): 908-.
 
85.
Murphy TH, Tierney JT: Current Status of Cigarette Smoking among Rhode Island Physicians. Rhode Island medical journal. 1963, 46: 655-657.
 
86.
Payne VB: To smoke or not to smoke. New York state journal of medicine. 1974, 74 (8): 1479-.
 
87.
Greenwald P, Nelson D, Greene D: Smoking habits of physicians and their wives. New York state journal of medicine. 1971, 71 (17): 2096-2098.
 
88.
Hay DR, Christmas BW: The smoking habits of women doctors and doctors' wives in New Zealand. Preventive medicine. 1976, 5 (1): 78-88. 10.1016/0091-7435(76)90011-6.
 
89.
Dykman RA, Stalnaker JM: Survey of women physicians graduating from medical school 1925–1940. Journal of medical education. 1957, 32 (3 Part 2): 3-38.
 
90.
Powers L, Parmelle RD, Wiesenfelder H: Practice patterns of women and men physicians. Journal of medical education. 1969, 44 (6): 481-491.
 
91.
Shapiro CS, Stibler BJ, Zelkovic AA, Mausner JS: Careers of women physicians: a survey of women graduates from seven medical schools, 1945–1951. Journal of medical education. 1968, 43 (10): 1033-1040.
 
92.
Doll R, Hill AB: Lung cancer and other causes of death in relation to smoking; a second report on the mortality of British doctors. British medical journal. 1956, 2 (5001): 1071-1081.
 
93.
Doll R, Peto R: Cigarette smoking and bronchial carcinoma: dose and time relationships among regular smokers and lifelong non-smokers. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1978, 32 (4): 303-313.
 
94.
van Reek J, Adriaanse H: Smoking by physicians in Scandinavia: 1952–1989. Scandinavian journal of social medicine. 1991, 19 (4): 256-259.
 
95.
Adriaanse H, van Reek J, Metsemakers J: Smoking behaviour of Dutch general practitioners in the period 1977–1983. Scandinavian journal of primary health care. 1986, 4 (3): 151-156. 10.3109/02813438609014822.
 
96.
Fletcher C, Doll R: A survey of doctors' attitudes to smoking. British journal of preventive & social medicine. 1969, 23 (3): 145-153.
 
97.
Hay DR: Cigarette smoking by New Zealand doctors and nurses: results from the 1996 population census. The New Zealand medical journal. 1998, 111 (1062): 102-104.
 
98.
Scott HD, Fulton JP, Buechner JS, Waters WJ, Tierney JT: Current trends: smoking-related mortality decline among physicians – Rhode Island. Mmwr. 1990, 39 (38): 656-658.
 
99.
Boyle P: Tobacco smoking and the British doctors' cohort. British journal of cancer. 2005, 92 (3): 419-420. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6602361.
 
100.
Clever LH, Arsham GM: Physicians' own health – some advice for the advisors. The Western journal of medicine. 1984, 141 (6): 846-854.
 
101.
Yaacob I, Abdullah ZA: Smoking habits and attitudes among doctors in a Malaysian hospital. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1993, 24 (1): 28-31.
 
102.
Mausner JS: Smoking in medical students. A survey of attitudes, information, and smoking habits. Archives of environmental health. 1966, 13 (1): 51-60.
 
103.
Thomas CB, Ross DC, Higinbothom CQ: Precursors of Hypertension and Coronary Disease among Healthy Medical Students: Discriminant Function Analysis. I. Using Smoking Habits as the Criterion. Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital. 1964, 115: 174-194.
 
104.
Smith DR, Leggat PA: An international review of tobacco smoking among medical students. Journal of postgraduate medicine. 2007, 53 (1): 55-62.
 
105.
Smith DR, Leggat PA: An international review of tobacco smoking among dental students in 19 countries. International dental journal. 2007, 57 (6): 452-458.
 
106.
Chapman S: Doctors who smoke. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 1995, 311 (6998): 142-143.
 
 
CITATIONS (20):
1.
The price paid: Manipulation of otolaryngologists by the tobacco industry to obfuscate the emerging truth that smoking causes cancer
Robert K. Jackler, Hussein A. Samji
The Laryngoscope
 
2.
Tobacco smoking among doctors in mainland China: a study from Shandong province and review of the literature
Derek R Smith, Isabella Zhao, Lina Wang
Tobacco Induced Diseases
 
3.
Declining Rates of Tobacco Use in the Japanese Medical Profession, 1965^|^ndash;2009
Derek R. Smith, Koji Wada
Journal of Epidemiology
 
4.
Epithelial–stromal interactions in salivary glands of rats exposed to chronic passive smoking
Juliana Mandato Ferragut, Marcelo Rodrigues da Cunha, Cesar Alexandre Fabrega Carvalho, Ricardo Noboro Isayama, Eduardo José Caldeira
Archives of Oral Biology
 
5.
Physicians’ views on the role of smoking in smoking-related diseases: findings from cross-sectional studies from 1982–2014 in Estonia
Kersti Pärna, Mariliis Põld, Inge Ringmets
Tobacco Induced Diseases
 
6.
Smoking Health Professional Student: An Attitudinal Challenge for Health Promotion?
Daniel Cauchi, Julian Mamo
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
 
7.
Are Smoking Habits Changing among Spanish Health Professionals? Results from the SUN Cohort 1999–2008
M. Ruiz-Canela, M.A. Martínez-González, C. López-del Burgo, J. De Irala, J.J. Beunza, M. Bes-Rastrollo
Tobacco Use Insights
 
8.
Nursing education and beliefs towards tobacco cessation and control: a cross- sectional national survey (GHPSS) among nursing students in Greece
Evridiki Patelarou, Constantine I Vardavas, Penelope Ntzilepi, Charles W Warren, Anastasia Barbouni, Jenny Kremastinou, Gregory N Connolly, Panagiotis Behrakis
Tobacco Induced Diseases
 
9.
Trends in smoking behaviour among Estonian physicians in 1982–2014
Kersti Pärna, Mariliis Põld, Inge Ringmets
BMC Public Health
 
10.
Dual Diagnosis Among Physicians: A Clinical Perspective
María Dolores Braquehais, Pilar Lusilla, Miquel Jordi Bel, María Cecilia Navarro, Viviana Nasillo, Albert Díaz, Sergi Valero, Jaume Padrós, Eugeni Bruguera, Miquel Casas
Journal of Dual Diagnosis
 
11.
Cigarette smoking and smoking-attributable diseases among Estonian physicians: a cross-sectional study
Mait Raag, Kersti Pärna
BMC Public Health
 
12.
Climate change and health: time to adopt environmental probity?
Tim Ballard
British Journal of General Practice
 
13.
Smoking behavior, attitudes, and cessation counseling among healthcare professionals in Armenia
Narine Movsisyan, Petrosyan Varduhi, Harutyunyan Arusyak, Petrosyan Diana, Muradyan Armen, Stillman Frances
BMC Public Health
 
14.
Textbook of Addiction Treatment: International Perspectives
María Braquehais, Miquel Bel, María Navarro, Meritxell Heredia, Viviana Nasillo, Antonio Arteman, Jaume Padrós, Eugeni Bruguera, Miguel Casas
 
15.
Smoking Prevention and Cessation
Torre La, Luca Calzoni
 
16.
Prevalence of tobacco use in healthcare workers: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Kapka Nilan, Tricia McKeever, Ann McNeill, Martin Raw, Rachael Murray, Stanton Glantz
PLOS ONE
 
17.
Textbook of Addiction Treatment
María Braquehais, Eugeni Bruguera, Miquel Casas
 
18.
Smoking Environments in China
Ross Barnett, Shuhan Jiang, Sihui Peng
 
19.
Beliefs about harms of cigarette smoking among Norwegian adults born from 1899 to 1969. Do variations across education, smoking status and sex mirror the decline in smoking?
Tord Vedøy, Karl Lund, Rajnish Joshi
PLOS ONE
 
20.
Prevalence and determinants of smoking behavior among physicians in emergency department: A national cross-sectional study in China
Qiao Zong, Hui Li, Nan Jiang, Yanhong Gong, Jianwei Zheng, Xiaoxv Yin
Frontiers in Public Health
 
eISSN:1617-9625
Journals System - logo
Scroll to top